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By Edward Schuster, Frank Feuille

As the time allotted is short, we can present only a general idea of the oil laws in the Latin-American republics, as a supplement to Bulletin 206 of the Department of the Interior compiled under the direction of J. W. Thompson of the Bureau of Mines and entitled "Petroleum Laws of All America." We shall not discuss the European colonies in Latin-America nor the island republics. As to the countries discussed, we shall attempt to give the main features of such special petroleum legislation as has been adopted prior to the early part of this year; where no special petroleum laws exist, we must look to the mining codes for light on the petroleum policy. As the laws and regulations for the extraction of the metals are often difficult of application to, and are lacking in many essentials for, the petroleum industry, it is best for persons or companies desiring to enter, on a large scale, into the petroleum exploration and development of countries not having special petroleum legislation, to obtain a concession contract from the executive of the country under consideration, and to have the concession approved by the congress. If this concession, which would then be a special law, contains nothing contrary to the constitution of that country and does not infringe on vested rights of third parties, it should be reasonably safe. If in such country there is some doubt as to whether the petroleum subsoil is owned by the nation or the private surface owner, only public lands should be covered with the concession. Guatemala is the only republic in the group that discriminates directly against foreigners. Bolivia, Ecuador, Mexico and Venezuela require waivers of diplomatic protection.' Colombia requires foreigners to agree to be bound by its alien law. In addition,Mexico makes it unlawful for foreigners to acquire direct ownership of real estate, including mines, within a zone of 50 km. along the coasts and one of 100 km. alongitsland

Jan 1, 1923

By T. L. Joseph, G. Bitsianes

THE layered structure of partially reduced iron ore was described in a previous paper.' Reduction by hydrogen was found to take place at well-defined interfaces between layers of the solid phases. In the present investigation, a detailed study was made of the wiistite phase that had formed during the partial reduction of a cylindrical compact of chemically pure hematite. An unusually wide band of wiistite permitted a rather detailed study of this phase. The specimen was made from Baker's C.P. hematite in the form of a cylinder 1.5 cm in diameter and 1.8 cm long. A dense ore structure with about 6 pct porosity was attained by heating the specimen in air at 1100°C for 3 hr. To confine reduction to the top surface, a ceramic coating was applied to the bottom and sides of the cylindrical compact. The specimen was then partially reduced in hydrogen at 850°C and subjected to a coordinated sequence of macro-, micro-, and X-ray examinations. A section of the partially reduced cylinder is shown in the macrograph, Fig. 1. Four layers consisting of metallic iron, wustite, magnetite, and unreduced hematite are clearly shown. The effort to force reduction to proceed downward in topochemi-cal fashion was only partly successful, as some reduction occurred along one side and bottom of the cylinder. A rather wide layer of dark wustite phase had formed, however, and permitted sampling for X-ray studies as indicated. To supplement previous work and to study the wustite layer in more detail, ten separate layers were removed for X-ray examination. Broad and diffuse patterns were obtained with the as-filed powders, especially with those of iron and wiistite, and the condition indicated a cold-working and variable composition effect within the respective layers. This condition was corrected by annealing the entire series of powders at an appropriate temperature. For the annealing treatment, the ten powder samples were wrapped in silver foil, sealed under vacuum in small quartz tubes, and heated at 750°C for 16 hr. The specimens were then drastically quenched in cold water to preserve the annealed condition. These annealed specimens were X-rayed in turn and the compiled patterns are shown in Fig. 2. The standard patterns for iron and its oxides have been interjected at appropriate positions for purposes of comparison and phase identification. All of the patterns obtained were clearcut and concise so that positive identifications could be made for all of the phases. The outermost layers A, B, and C were composed almost entirely of iron with a small amount of wiistite being detectable at the X-ray limit of phase detection. Layer D from the iron-wustite interface showed both of these phases. The next four layers E, F, G, and H were all in the dark phase band which had been tentatively identified as wustite by the macroexamination, Fig. 1. The diffraction data with their single-phase patterns of wiistite for these layers checked the visual evidence. Continuing the X-ray analyses after layer H, the macrograph (Fig. 1) shows that layer I came largely from the magnetite zone but included some fringes of the wiistite-magnetite interface. The diffraction pattern for the sample confirmed this observation. Layer J came from the unreduced core of the specimen and its diffraction pattern indicated a preponderance of hematite phase. The reduction behavior of synthetic compacts has thus been found to be similar to natural dense iron ore. The previous results were supplemented with measurements of the diffraction films and calculations of the respective unit parameters. These X-ray data are summarized in Table I and offer some interesting correlations as to the compositions of the various phases undergoing reduction. The iron layers that were analyzed gave lattice parameters close to that of pure iron at 2.8664A. Evidently this iron was present in layers A through D as a pure phase with little or no oxygen dissolved in its lattice. With the wiistite layers an entirely different situation prevailed in that there was a definite and

Jan 1, 1955

By David J. Mack, Dennis R. O’Boyle

The mechanical properties of three polycrystalline intermediale Phases that have the y bvass structure were measured in compression between 400° and 900°K. At the lower testing temperatures— termed Region I— no plaslic deformalion occurred prior to brittle fracture. A1 higher temperatuves— lermed Region III—the three phases deformted plaslically for all strain rules from 1.5 to 36.0 x 10-4 sec-1. The homologous temperature for the inilialion of plaslic flow increased in the same order as tile atomic size difference between atoms in each plmse (0.50Tmp for y AgZn, 0.62Tmp for y CuZn, and 0.76 Tmp for y CuCd). The increased flow resistance oj. y CuCd above 0.50Tmp is explaitzed in terms of the more random arrangement of copper and cadmiwn atoms on the laltice sites of&apos; the y bvass slrilctlire. Plaslic deformation of the three intevmiediate phases in the smooth plaslic flow region appears to be controlled by oacancy-induced dislocation climb. RESULTS are reported in this paper on the mechanical properties of three binary intermediate phases having the complex cubic y brass structure (D82, 143m) containing fifty-two atoms in the unit cell. The structure of the prototype y brass phase, y CuZn, was first analyzed by Bradley and Thewlis&apos; based on the X-ray work of Westgren and Phragmen.2 The y brass structure can be visualized as an arrangement of twenty-seven body centered cubes (3 by 3 by 3) into a unit cell containing fifty-four atoms. From this cell the center atom and the four corner atoms are removed and the remaining fifty-two atoms are slightly displaced, resulting in the y brass structure. Approximately thirty-five binary intermediate phases that have an electron to atom ratio of 21:13 have been reported to form the y brass structure. The three y brass intermediate phases selected for this study are formed from elements in groups IB and IIB of the first and second long period. Each compound exists over a composition range that includes the stoi-chiometric composition A5BB (Cu5Zn8, Ag5Zn8, Cu5Cd8). y CuZn (a0 = 9.944A) has solubility limits extending from 57 to 67 at. pct Zn at 500°C apd melts peritecti-cally at 834°C; y AgZn (a0 = 9.326A) has a solubility range from 58 to 63 at. pct Za and melts peritectically at 661°C. y CuCd (a, = 9.596A) melts congruently at 563°C and has a maximum range of solubility extending from 58 to 64 at. pct Cd. In order to minimize coring and microporosity during solidification, the composi- tion of the compounds that form peritectically (y CuZn and y AgZn) was chosen so that the temperature difference between the liquidus and the solidus is only a few degrees centigrade. In selecting y brass compounds for this study, phases were avoided that contained a transition element or that had an electron to atom ratio greater than 1.70. Hume-Rothery et a1.3 has observed that, when the electron to atom ratio of y brass intermediate phases exceeds 1.70, atoms begin to drop out of the unit cell to maintain a constant electron to unit cell ratio. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Each of the three intermediate phases was prepared from elements having a purity >99.999 pct. Only trace quantities of impurities (<0.0001 pct) were detected by spectrographic analysis of the four elements. A master alloy of each compound weighing approximately 130 g was prepared by melting the elements in evacuated sealed quartz tubes heated in an electric furnace. Specimens having the desired diameter for the mechanical property measurements were obtained by remelting the master alloy in a Vycor tube under argon and drawing specimens from the melt into 4-mm-diam quartz tubes. To obtain a smooth surface on specimens drawn from the melt, the inside of the quartz tube was coated with a thin layer of graphite formed by thermally decompositing acetone. All specimens were imbedded in sealing wax and cut to the proper length with a diamond-impregnated cut-off wheel. The individual specimens (4 mm diam by 8 mm long) were then sealed in evacuated Pyrex tubes and homogenized at 500°C for 72 hr. Chemical composition, variations over the length of the rod (10 cm long) were generally less than 0.2 pct and the analyzed composition differed from the desired composition by less than 0.5 pct.4 Metallographic evaluation of the specimens after homogenization showed no evidence of a second phase in any of the compounds. The average grain size of the specimens after homogenization was 1 to 2 mm. All mechanical property measurements were carried out in an argon atmosphere using a compression apparatus described previously.5 Prior to applying the load to the specimen, the test apparatus was evacuated, back-filled with argon, and heated to the test temperature for 20 min to establish thermal equilibrium. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Mechanical properties measured as a function of temperature and strain rate for each of the three y brass phases were similar. From room temperature to the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature, only elastic deformation was observed prior to fracture.

Jan 1, 1968

Within the last century, and largely during the latter half of it, the increase of our knowledge of the development of man, both in his search for a livelihood and for power, and in the growth of his reason and conscience, has been greater than all we had known before. The great interest in all kinds of archaeological work and the many excavations made of buried and long forgotten places has put at our disposal historical records-not available, and in many cases not known before, and a study of these and other records of human progress from paleontological and geological sources has given us a much broader view of what we call "civilization" than was possible even a short time ago. The old idea that men were created with fully developed minds, speech and reason has yielded to the view that in the upward progress of the human race the development of the mind and reason has been a comparatively recent occurrence, as we think of the half million, and probably more, years that have passed since our earliest records of man were made. The traits that come to us without effort

Jan 1, 1939

By H. C. Rickaby

BY August 1944 Canada expects to be shipping 56 percent hematite ore from its new Steep Rock iron mine, via Port Arthur on Lake Superior, to the steelmaking centers in Canada and the United States. This is indeed welcome news to steel men, especially if they operate open hearth furnaces, as the Steep Rock ore is a high-grade lump and will be valuable as charge and feed ore. But better news is the fact that this first big producer of high-grade hematite ore in Canada, since the exhaustion of the Helen mine in the Michipicoten area north of Lake Superior in 1918, has a proved ore body of 16,757,000 long tons and a probable ore body of 14,000,000 long tons, thus giving an over-all total of 30,757,000 long tons and assuring production for a number of years to come.

Jan 1, 1943

By R. E. Somers

I. Introduction...........................604 1. Location, Topography, and Climate...............604 2. Scope of Work and Acknowledgments...............606 3. History and Mining......................606 11. General Geology.........................609 1. Introduction...........................609 2. Granite. :..........................610 3. Quartz Porphyry......................... 612 4. Monzonite........................... 614 5. Volcanic Breccia........,................ 618 6. Gravels............................. 619 111. Economic Geology......................... 619 1. Introduction........................... 619 2. Mineralogy........................... 619 3. Occurrence of the Ores...................... 622 4. Oxidation and Downward Enrichment............... 630 5. Rock Alteration........................639 6. Genesis of the Ores........................ 643 I. Introduction 1. Location, Topography, and Climate The Burro Mountains are located in the southwestern part of New Mexico, in Grant county. The group is made up of two distinct mountain masses, known as the Little Burros and the Big Burros, the former lying about 6 miles southwest of Silver City, and the latter about 9 miles farther in the same direction. They are separated by the valley of the Mangas River, a tributary of the Gila, and a stream only in name, except after a heavy downpour of rain. The Little Burros attain an elevation of 6,625 ft. above sea level, and the Big Burros 8,054 ft., with the surrounding country averaging about 6,000 ft. To the south of these mountains stretches the desert plain, while to the north are the more frequent elevations of the mountainous country.

Jan 1, 1916

By Elmer W. Pehrson

OPINION seems widely divergent as to where we stand with respect to future mineral supply. From some quarters we hear that the United States is about to become a "have-not" nation and about to experience the evil consequences such a situation would entail. Others claim that we are still a treasure house of stored-up mineral wealth, the surface of which barely has been scratched. The data to be presented here support the conclusion that neither of these viewpoints is correct and that we are far from exhaustion of those mineral resources that are basic to our industrial economy. However, exhaustion is well advanced in a number of important subsidiary minerals so that we can no longer drift along with the easy-going philosophy that the earth will provide. The time has come when we must recognize the true situation and do something about it.

Jan 1, 1945

By F. S. Pettit

The oxidation of Ni-3 to 25 wt pd Al alloys has been studied in 0. 1 atm of oxygen at temperatures between 900° and 1300°C. These alloys have been found to oxidize by three different mechanisms which depend on the temperature of- oxidation and the alloy composition. Two of the three mechanisms do not permit a continuous layer of Al,0, to be formed on the alloy surface and the oxidation rates are greater than that for pure nickel. The third mechanism results in the formation of an external A1203 scale and lke oxidation rates are about three orders of magnitude smaller than those for pure nickel. The minimum amount of aluminum required for the formation of external scales of A L,0, has been determined. NICKEL-base alloys are currently the main source of materials for use at elevated temperatures in gas turbine engines. These alloys are usually coated to obtain oxidation resistance. Coatings on nickel-base alloys are frequently formed by reaction of the alloy with aluminum whereby alloyed nickel aluminides are formed. The alloyed nickel aluminides provide protection to the nickel base alloy because external scales of A1203 (alumina) are formed during oxidation and mass transport through A120, is slow in comparison to mass transport through most other oxides. In view of the protective properties of A1203, it is important to know how much aluminum is required in these alloys in order to form external scales of AlzO,. The present paper is concerned with the oxidation kinetics and the oxidation mechanisms of Ni-A1 alloys and the minimum amount of aluminum required in these alloys for the formation of external scales of Alz03. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS When a Ni-A1 alloy is heated in oxygen at elevated temperatures, the following reactions can take place on the surface of the alloy where the oxide phases are assumed to be virtually pure: These oxide phases are in the form of nuclei scattered over the surface of the alloy and, in view of their rapid formation, they need not be in equilibrium with the alloy. As the oxidation process continues, equilibrium between the alloy surface and the oxide phases is approached and the stability of the oxide nuclei is determined by the composition of the alloy at the alloy/oxide interface because of the following reactions: 3NiA1204 + 2A1 (alloy) = 4AlzO3 + 3Ni (alloy) [41 4Ni0 + 2Al (alloy) = NiA120, + 3Ni (alloy) [ 5 1 Application of the mass-action law to Eqs. [4J and [5J yields the following equilibrium conditions for these reactions: where aA1 and aNi are the activities of aluminum and nickel, are the standard free energies of formation of NiO, A1203, and NA1204, respectively, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. If the composition of the alloy at the alloy/oxide interface is such that (akl/ahi) is greater than the equilibrium values defined by Eqs. [6] and [7], then Reactions (41 and [5] will go to the right as written. Conversely, if the alloy composition is such that the activity ratio (aLl,/aki) at the alloy/oxide interface is less than the equilibrium values, then Reactions [4] and [5] will proceed to the left. The equilibrium activity ratios in Eqs. [6] and 171 can be calculated since values for the standard free energies of formation of the oxide phases are available. Standard free energies of formation for NiO and A1203 have been tabulated by Elliott and ~leiser.&apos; The standard free energy of formation for NiA1204 can be obtained from the data of Tretjakow and Schmalzried.&apos; The results of these calculations are tabulated in Table I. Table I shows that the following inequality is valid over the temperature interval 900" to 1300°C: (Reaction [5]) (Reaction [4]) « 1and therefore the aluminum activity for these compositions can be taken as equal to the square root of the activity ratios (i.e., aNi = 1). If equilibrium is estab-

Jan 1, 1968

By J. Ellzey Hayden, Lucien Eaton

The Cliffs Shaft mine of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co., located in the city of Ishpeming, Mich., is the largest producer of hard hematite ore on the Marquette iron range. The two shafts, A and B, lying 820 ft. (250 m.) apart on the east-west trend of the ore formation, were sunk in the early eighties, and, except for four years, have been steady producers of iron ore. Their location, on a hill overlooking the general offices of the company on the one side and the city of Ishpeming on the other, has made the shaft houses landmarks. In the spring of 1919, as the old wooden shaft houses had become shaky and out of line, and would soon be unsafe, it was necessary to replace them with the least possible delay. Three plans of construction were, therefore, considered: To replace the old shaft houses by somewhat similar structures made of wood; to use steel and radically change the design; or to build reinforced-conerete shaft houses outside of the wooden structures, completely enclosing them. The first plan was disapproved, because it is anticipated that the mine will have a long life and the proximity of other buildings makes the danger from fire rather great. Delay in receiving material, and the necessity for closing the shafts during erection, were other factors in the situation. The second plan was disapproved on account of the high cost of steel, slow delivery, and interference with hoisting during the period of erection. The presence near one of the shafts of a large bed of hard gravel suitable for concrete made the cost of the third plan considerably less than the second, and little, if any, delay in hoisting was expected. Our expectations in this regard were fully realized. Furthermore, the work could be done by unskilled labor, which was plentiful, and the erection could be quickly started. When the proposition was submitted to W. G. Mather, president of the company, he recommended that, on account of the prominence of the buildings due to their location, an effort should be made to combine in the design as far as practicable something of architectural beauty. Following his recommendation, the original plans were submitted to the

Jan 1, 1922

By Hansheinz Portisch, Harold Margolin

A surface expansion was found to occur sometime after etching in Ti-A1 alloys containing 9.5 to 12.5 wt pct Al. The structure formed, grew, and disappeared with tzrrze. The surface expansion was followed by microscope observations and interferometric and lattice parameter measurements. Activation energy measurements for the growth of the "expansion structure" and chemical analysis indicated that the phenomenon occurred as a result of hydrogen pzckup during etching. It is proposed that hydrogen initially enters octahedral sites of Ti3Al coherent with a Ti and later shifts to the tetrahedral sites. It is postulated that expansion occurs when hydrogen enters the tetrahedral sites. The expansion structure disappeared, it is proposed, because of diffusion of hydrogen from the surface into the body of the alloy and because of loss of coherency of Ti3Al. In examining Ti-A1 alloys, Ence and arolinl observed markings on the surface of specimens. These markings did not appear after electropolishing only, but rather appeared only after etching. The markings appeared to grow as a function of time after etching and later seemed to disappear. Although the markings had some similarity to precipitates, showing, frequently, a Widmanstatten type of arrangement, the observation that other microstructural markings continue to be seen within the new structure suggested that it was actually not a precipitate. The source of this structure was unknown and an attempt was made in the present investigation to develop some understanding of its nature. It has been labeled expansion structure. 1) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A) Alloys. Alloys in the range 6.5 to 14.5 wt. pct A1 were studied. Bars, 4 in. sq, forged from Bureau of Mines (73 Bhn) titanium consumably arc-melted 4-lb ingots,&apos; as well as 50-g arc-melted buttons of desired aluminum contents were used. The 50-g buttons also used Bureau of Mines titanium (73 Bhn) and aluminum of 99.99 pct purity. Buttons containing up to 8.5 wt pct A1 were hot-rolled from a furnace at 900&apos; . Those with higher aluminum contents were hand-forged on a titanium anvil, and heated with an oxygen-hydrogen torch in the region of 1200" to 1300°c. Frequent reheating kept the samples at the desired temperature range. After a reduction of about 30 pct, the samples were water-quenched. To eliminate any contamination picked up either during hot rolling or forging, at least 1 mil of the surface of the sample was taken off. B) Heat Treatment. Prior to heat treatment all alloys were vacuum-annealed to remove hydrogen. Samples were annealed at 900&apos; until a vacuum of 10&apos;5 mm Hg was established. After this treatment, the samples were wrapped in molybdenum sheet and heat-treated in argon-filled quartz capsules, which were broken under water or iced brine at the conclusion of the heat treatment. All heat treatments under dynamic vacuum were performed in a rapid-quench furnace. This consisted of a molybdenum-lined quartz tube attached to a vacuum system and through a stopcock to a beaker of water. At the completion of the heat treatment the vacuum stopcock was closed, the furnace shut off, and dropped below the quartz tube. Then immediately the inlet stopcock was opened and water admitted until the tube was filled. The steam formed was allowed to escape through the inlet stopcock. This method was used in heat treatments up to llOO°C. C) Metallography. Specimens for metallographic examination were ground, then electropolished using a Disa Electropol machine with a perchloric acid electr01te. Specimens were etched with R-etch.3 A standard etching time of 3 min was used, with the specimen being agitated during immersion. D) Sample Preparation for X-ray Analysis. Samples 0.2 to 0.5 mm in diam were produced from heat-treated rods which were turned to 2 mm diam on a lathe and then rotation-etched. An etchant consisting of 1 pt HF, 7 pt HN03, and 12 pt HzO was satisfactory. With the rod rotating in a vertical position at 50 to 100 rpm, a needle with uniform dimensions could be obtained. Care had to be taken to insure that the rod was at the center of rotation, otherwise cavitation developed. If a small unevenness developed, it was possible to grind it off with a fine emery paper. E) X-ray Diffraction. All X-ray work was done on a North American Phillips X-ray diffraction apparatus and a Jarrell Ash microfocus X-ray unit. The Phillips unit was used with a copper target and nickel filter. The Jarrell Ash unit was fitted with a cobalt target and iron filter. For the Phillips unit 35 kva and 20 ma were used, whereas for the microfocus unit with the 100-p fixed-focus gun 40 kv and 1.5 ma were used. It was found that alignment of cameras on the Jarre11 Ash unit was very critical. The X-ray beam contains an intense area which is not the beam center. The cameras were aligned with the intense region by monitoring the beam coming out of the camera with a Geiger counter. Adjustments were made until a maximum intensity was obtained. A Phillips diffractometer with a Brown chart recorder furnished some of the lattice parameter data. The divergence slit up to 80 deg 28 was I deg; above 80 deg, a 4-deg opening was used, while the scatter slit was1 deg and the receiving slit had a 0.003-in. opening. The general scanning rate was 1 deg per min, while peaks of special interest were rescanned at -j deg per min. For elevated-temperature X-ray diffraction a Uni-cam High Temperature Camera with a film diameter

Jan 1, 1969

By P. G. Shewmon, H. E. Collins

A study has been made to determine the sites at which sulfur adsorption occurs on copper surfaces. measurements were made of the relative torques, Ys, at the intersection of twin boundaries with surfaces near the three low-index orientations, i.e., (100), @lo), and 011), over a range of H2S/H2 ratios. HZS concerztvations j&apos;ro~n 3 to 1500pp)n between 830" and 1050°C were used. It is concluded that sulfur adsorption occurved preferentially though not exclusively at edge sites near the (100) and (110) surfaces in the HzS range — 700 Ppm giving rise to negative torques near these orientations. Beyond this HzS range, adsorption occurred at all sites. Near the (111) surface, 7/y little with HzS concentration up to approxiwzately 75pptn. Above this range, the results indicate adsorption is occurring OH both terrace and edge sites. SCIENTIFIC interest in surfaces and their interactions with a gaseous environment dates back to the beginning of the 19th century. The scientific luminaries of that period—Faraday, Maxwell, Rayleigh, Dewar, and Gibbs—were already concerned about such processes. However, it has only been within the past several decades that adsorption on metal surfaces has been actively studied. This increased interest in adsorption has been brought about by the advent of new and improved experimental techniques and apparatus, e.g., ultrahigh vacuum, and field-emission and ion microscopes. However, most of the work done using these techniques has been carried out at low temperatures. When adsorption studies have been made at either low or high temperatures, they usually gave no indication of the particular surface orientations or type of sites on which adsorption was occurring. In the last few years, there have been a series of studies in which the surface tension, y,, and/or its derivative with respect to orientation, 7, have been studied as a function of orientation and atmosphere.&apos;-7 Nearly all of the work on the relative torque,* ~/y, silver annealed in hydrogen and air.6 Recently Winterbottom and Gjostein" have used a modified and more accurate Mykurian method to determine the y plot of gold in hydrogen The only work in which T/~, has been measured over a range of chemical potentials for a given solute, p2, is that of Robertson and shewmon7 on the Cu-0 system. They measured T/Y, vs Po, (10"" to 10- l3 atm) at 1000°C in various mixtures of Hz0 and HZ. From this work they estimated the value of p2 at which one half of the surface sites are occupied with oxygen, pg, as being in the range 10- l6 to 10- l5 atm of oxygen. They also found that increasing Pa increased the magnitude of ~/y, near the (111) and (100) orientations. This indicates that oxygen is not adsorbed preferentially at step edges, but uniformly over all surface sites. In addition, they did one experiment on sulfur adsorption on copper surfaces, which indicated that sulfur adsorption decreases ~/y, near the (100) orientation, while not affecting ~/y, near the (111). This could be interpreted as indicating that sulfur adsorbs preferentially at step edges near the (100). In this paper the primary objective of the work has been to carry out a study of sulfur adsorption on copper surfaces over a range of temperatures and p,. In conjunction with this work, thermal grooving at grain boundaries has been examined as a method of determining the effect of sulfur adsorption on y,. METHODS Ideally, one would like to have information on the quantity of solute adsorbed on a surface and the types of sites at which it is absorbed as a function of p2. The total quantity adsorbed or the surface excess is given by the thermodynamic equation Thus data on the variation of y, with pz indicates the value of p2 at which adsorption becomes appreciable and the quantity adsorbed. The type of adsorption site is more difficult to deduce but information on this can be obtained from the variation of rz with 8, the angular deviation of the surface orientation. This is obtained from the thermodynamic equationlg Data on t and ys as functions of p2 have been obtained by the following methods. 1) Twin Boundary Grooving—By determining the effect of adsorption on the torque, 7, where T is the variation of surface energy, y,, with orientation, it is possible to obtain some indication as to the preferred sites of adsorption. Experimentally, the torque value measured is the relative torque, 7/ys The twin boundary grooving technique suggested by Mykura&apos;&apos; was used in this study to determine near the three low-index orientations— (loo), (110), and (111). Mykura&apos;s equation relates 7 /yS to measurements of the di-

Jan 1, 1967

By Ole Singstad

The legislatures of New York and New Jersey, determined in 1919 that a vehicular tunnel should be built under the Hudson River. On July 1, 1919, an engineering staff was organized with the late Clifford M. Holland as chief engineer. After preliminary investigation it was decided to build the tunnel from Canal St., New York, to 12th St., Jersey City, which is the center of the heaviest traffic across the Hudson River. It was also decided to build two tunnels—one for west-bound traffic and one for east-bound—the tunnels to be of cast iron, built up of segments and bolted together, each tunnel to have a roadway 20 ft. wide and a clear head room of 13 ft. 6 in. The tunnels have an exterior diameter of 29 ft. 6 in. The interior lining is of concrete, the sidewalls, tiled with a vitreous white tile, and the roadways are paved with granite block. The entrances and exits at both ends are separated by two blocks so as to reduce traffic congestion. Basis of Ventilation It was recognized very early that one of the most important problems confronting the engineers was a proper ventilation system. It was estimated that each tunnel as planned would have a traffic capacity of 1900 vehicles per hr. The tunnels are 8500 ft. long between portals, and it was considered that the ventilation should be based on all of these vehicles being operated by gasoline engines. That presented a problem in ventilation unlike any other either in magnitude or character. There have been vehicular tunnels built in Europe, principally in London, but they are shorter and have a smaller traffic capacity. Up to the present time, at least, they have handled a very large percentage of horsedrawn vehicles so that the necessary ventilation has been provided for by the natural draft through the portals and open shafts. Within the last few years, however, a small mechanical ventilating plant has been installed in the Blackwall Tunnel, which has been in operation about 27 years. I might mention that at the time this work was started, it was considered by many that the problem of ventilation was insuperable and it

Jan 1, 1927

By Eugene McAuliffe

THE heavy shrinkage in the production of bituminous coal has reflected adversely in the matter of tonnage produced by stripping arid mechanical loading machinery. The purchase of stripping and underground loading equipment has likewise been circumscribed. How- .ever a growing percentage of bituminous coal is being loaded by stripping and mechanical loading machinery. This situation is due to the fact that numerous strip pits were able to operate in Illinois and Indiana when under- cover mines were subjected to labor interference, a further advantage gained by their ability to produce and market coal at a price below that of the undercover mines. The mines equipped with mechanical loading. apparatus have enjoyed more continued operation for the double reason that the companies using coal-loading machinery are, generally speaking, more substantial and in better financial condition than many of the smaller properties who maintain hand-loading methods, and the market advantage due to lower production costs also reflects to the advantage of the undercover mines using mechanical loading equipment. Where a number of mines are con- trolled by one company, those not equipped with loading machinery and suffering from higher producing costs have often been closed, with the available tonnage concentrated in the more modernly equipped mines.

Jan 1, 1933

The following is an incomplete list of members and guests who called at Institute headquarters during the period June 10, 1918 to July 10, 1918. F. C. Alsdorf, Tucson, Ariz. Emory M. Marshall, Camp Raritan, N. J. Juan F. Brandes, Santa Barbara, Cal. Jacques S. Negru, Camp Niagara, Ont. .H. Smith Clark, Kansas City, Mo. Arvid E. Nissen, High Bridge, N. J. J. S. Cunningham, Charleston, W. Va. Richard G. Place, So. Strafford, Vt. W. G. Eberhardt, Tucson, Ariz. Frank H. Probert, Berkeley, Cal. M. Eldredge, Bombay,. India. Martin A. Roudabush, Osterburg, Pa. A. D. R. Galloway, Accra, W. Africa;. P. H. Royster, Minneapolis, Minn. F. Hanst, Harrisburg, Pa. J. L. Schueler, Peoria, Ill. B. B. Hood, Chrome, N.. J. Henry B. Smith, New Britain, Conn. Paul S. King, Wilmington, Del. W. G. Sommer, Peoria, Ill. E. D. Kinney, Anaconda, Mont. A. L. Toenges, Roanoke, Va. E. W. Kohl, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa. G. D. B. Turner, Butte, Mont. James W. Love, Knoxville, Tenn. A. T. Ward, Bellefonte, Pa. Edwin A. Austin, formerly with the Yukon Gold Co., is superintendent of the Elkoro mine at Jarbidge, Nev. John W. Beard is now with the Cia Minera de Penoles, Ojuela, Dgo., Mexico, via Mapimi. R. S. Bonsib has accepted a position with the United States Emergency Fleet Corporation as District Safety Engineer, San Francisco, Cal. Albert Burch has been appointed by the Bureau of Mines to encourage the mining of chrome. F. B. Caldwell is working for the U. S. Bureau of Mines, under Albert Burch, in the investigation of chromite deposits. W. A. Carlyle has taken over the duties (in addition to his own) formerly assigned to E. P. Mathewson with the British America Nickel Corporation, at Sudbury, Canada. R. M. Catlin received the honorary degree of Doctor of Science at the recent commencement of Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. S. K. Dahl is giving up his position as mill superintendent with the Messina Mines, which have been suspended, and is returning to this country. Algernon Del Mar has become manager of the Techatticup mines, El Dorado Canyon, Nev. Robert Dye has succeeded D. L. Forbes as manager of the Teck-Hughes at Kirkland Lake, Ont., Canada. J. O. Elton, superintendent of the Anaconda company&apos;s electrolytic zinc plant at Great Falls, Mont., is doing special work with the U. S. Bureau of Mines. R. B. Caples takes charge of the plant in his absence. George H. Gibbs has resigned his position as engineer at Messrs. T. & 1. Bradley & Sons, Ltd., Darlaston blast furnaces, Darlaston, and is now located at "Belmont." Litchfield Road, Rushall, Walsall, England. William D. Gordon, for the past 7 years manager of The Mine & Smelter Supply Co. at El Paso, has been elected president of Camphuis, Rives & Gordon,. Inc., and has opened American headquarters for the company at 81 New Street, New York, N. Y. E. Harms, for the past 16 years inn charge of metallurgical operations of the Torreon, Mexico; lead and copper smelter, has resigned and is now located at El Paso, Tex.

Jan 8, 1918

By R. S. Dean

THE first attempt to establish an equilibrium diagram of the lead-antimony series was made by Roland-Gosselin1 in 1896. This investigation classified the system as a purely eutectiferous one, with the eutectic at 12.5 per cent. antimony and 228° C. In the next year, Stead2 placed the eutectic temperature at 247° C. The error in temperature made by Roland-Gosselin, however, has been perpetuated in the literature with a remarkable degree of persistency; this value was accepted by Campbell (1902), and Ewen (1910),3 and will be found in the last edition of Desch&apos;s3 Metallography (1922). Gonterman&apos;s investigation, made in 1907, was the most complete one available at the time the present investigation was started. He concluded&apos; that the system was a simple eutectiferous one and placed the eutectic at 13 per cent. antimony and 247°C. Other investigations by Tammann (1907),5 Garbow (1909),6 Rudolfi (1910),7 Loebe (1911),8 and Leroux (1913)9 added little, if any-thing, to Gonterman&apos;s diagram. A number of investigations have been made of physical properties of the alloys. The electrical conductivity of the series was studied by Matthiessen (1860)10 and by A. W. Smith (1921);" the thermoforce by Rudolfi (1910),12 and Pelabon (1923);13 the specific heat by Durrer

Jan 2, 1926

By B. M. Larsen, K. Heindlhofer

Jan 1, 1945

By W. F. Carew, H. D. Kessler, F. A. Crossley

AS part of a program on phase relationships and transformation processes of titanium alloy systems, the titanium-rich corner of the Ti-Mo-V system has been investigated. This region was surveyed primarily to supply information toward the development of a creep resistant, weldable alloy, with a minimum alloy content, for use in the 425° to 550 °C range. Specifically, the investigation was directed toward the development of a stable ß alloy with less total alloying additions than is found in the Ti-30 pet Mo alloy. A secondary objective was the development of a creep resistant, weldable a-ß alloy for application around 300°C. Molybdenum was selected as primary additive to titanium on the basis of an investigation1 which showed that the Ti-30 pet Mo alloy had promising elevated temperature tensile properties. Furthermore, aging studies1 showed no tendency for this

Jan 1, 1957

[1-Iron and Steel JOHN A. MATHEWS, Chairman RALPH H, SWEETSER, Vice-chairman WILLIAM CAMPBELL, Vice-chairman MAX ROESLER, Secretary Iron Ore CHARLES B. MURRAY, Chairman R. C, ALLEN W. 0, HOTCHKISS MAX ROESLER ERNEST F, BURCHARD WILLIAM KELLY DWIGHT E, WOODBRIDGE M. M, DUNCAN CHARLES F. RAND CARL ZAPFFE C, T, FAIRBAIRN THOMAS T, READ Blast Furnace WALTER MATHESIUS, Chairman WILLIAM H. BLAUVELT S. P, KINNEY C. SNELLING ROBINSON A. J. BOYNTON DORSEY A. LYON R. H. SWEETSER D. T. CROXTON RICHARD MCCAFFERY R. J, WYSOR THOMAS L, JOSEPH CHARLES P, PERIN]

Jan 1, 1928

By Ta M. Li

How do you convert a copper-zinc resource into a viable economic mining operation? This problem, unlike most, was complicated by the additional presence of a sub-arctic climate, highest labor costs in the world, low-grade copper-zinc values, depressed market prices, and a complex mineralization.

Jan 12, 1977

By John M. Lovejoy

CURRENT production of petroleum on such a vast scale presents many interesting problems- the solutions of which are important not only to those directly interested in the business, but to the nation as a whole. The industry is relatively young. Until the discovers of the Lucas gusher at Spindletop in 1901 petroleum production had not exceeded 60,000,000 bbl. per year compared with 1,100,000,000 bbl. in 1936. In 36 years then, the modern oil business, production, transportation, refining, and marketing has developed. I will first present a brief history. of oil production as a background for consideration of the present situation.

Jan 1, 1937