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By Hani S. Mitri

The behaviour of grouted cable bolts used for rock reinforcement as a means of ground control in hard rock mining is investigated. The study utilizes an analytical model which is based on the variational principle to calculate the shear bond stress distribution along the embedded length of cable bolt. In this paper, a comprehensive parametric study which covers both geometric and mechanical design parameters involved is presented. Special emphasis is placed on studying the characteristics of the grout model represented by Winkler springs. This involved varying the maximum shear strength of the grout, its residual strength and the slip occurring between the cable and the borehole wall.

Jan 1, 1990

By Thomas M. Barczak

Wood cribs have been the dominant form of supplemental support in coal mining for many years. Recently, there has been a renewed interest in prop supports as a replacement for wood cribbing due to the increasing cost of mine timber and engineering advancements in prop design to improve their stability and yield capability. Prop supports generally consume less material, can be installed in less time with less labor, and provide less restriction to mine ventilation than wood crib supports. Several prop supports are now available or under development'. These include: (1) Strata Products Propsetter? Support System; (2) Heintzmann ACS and Super Prop; (3) MBK-Hydraulik MEGA prop; (4) Advanced Mining Technology Inc. (AMTI) BTS Mortar prop; (5) Dywidag Coal Post; (6) Western Support Systems YIPPI support; and (7) "The Can" support by Burrell Mining Products. A comparison of the performance and cost of these support systems to wood cribs is made to provide mine operators with information needed to assess their application potential. Examples of current underground installations are discussed. Included in this assessment are full scale tests of these supports conducted in the U.S. Bureau of Mines' Mine Roof Simulator.

Jan 1, 1995

By Eric G. Zahl

Researchers at the Spokane Research Laboratory of the National institute for Occupational Safety and health are evaluating stress and displacement measurements in a longwall coal mine. The objective is to determine the best indicators of coal bump hazards during operations so that mine foremen and technical stall can make more informed intervention decisions to protect miners from coal bumps. Instruments were clustered in two panels, a yield pillar, and the immediate roof and floor of a two-entry longwall coal mine. Data were gathered continuously from a variety of instruments as mining proceeded toward and past the instrument cluster. Researchers and the mine's technical staff evaluated these data with respect to coal bumps and bump mechanisms. Selected graphs were then presented to mine foremen on a periodic basis to test their usefulness in identifying hazards. Of particular interest was the use of horizontal stress data from the immediate roof. To measure changes in horizontal stress, a new technique was devel¬oped for installing a grouted biaxial stressmeter in the roof. An evaluation of the development of this stress monitoring system in producing data beneficial to mine foremen is presented.

Jan 1, 2000

By Ali Benbia

The paper shows results from the physical modelling of longwall excavations concentrating on the fracture pattern development above longwall panels. The modelling technique is briefly described and the detailed analysis of the fracture pattern is discussed. The physical modelling is particularly useful in visualising the caving process above longwall panels. This advantage has been exploited using the image analysis technique. Black and white pictures have been taken while the models are tested in successive stages and then enhanced and stored as binary images by scanning using an image analyser coupled with a video camera. These images are then processed using a custom C program which allows the discretization and characterisation of the fractures. This provides a valuable data base for further numerical and statistical analysis which subsequently may allow the assessment of the water inflow hazard to the workings. In this paper a sequence of different extraction thickness have been analysed using the technique mentioned above to show the effect of the extraction thickness on the fracture distribution and intensity.

Jan 1, 1993

By Brian E. Travis

Lightweight polymer grids have recently been introduced to the mining industry. They are currently being used for roof and rib control, longwall shield recovery, safety guarding or barricade, highwall screening, internal reinforcement of gunnite/shotcrete applications, sub-base reinforcement, construction of steepened slopes, retaining walls, mine reclamation (i.e. erosion control, turf reinforcement), and in numerous mining waste related projects. These polymer mining grids utilize a strong, lightweight polymer, usually special grades of polypropylene or polyethylene. High tensile strengths are achieved by molecular orientation of these polymers in the manufacturing process. The first step in the manufacturing process is to extrude the polymers into thick continuous sheets. These sheets are then punched, and drawn into open grid structures. Aperture size and configuration are controlled by the geometry of the punched hole and the degree to which the grids are stretched. The drawing process is the key to the molecular orientation required for the tensile strengths. These long chain polymer molecules in their natural state have a random orientation. When stretched, the molecules are pulled into a parallel alignment, thus creating a lightweight product with tensile strength comparable to steel. The finished polymer mining grid product is a viable alternative to conventional supplemental roof control meshes such as chain link fence and welded wire. Polymer mining grids are a fraction of the weight, have comparable load support qualities, and will not rust or corrode in even acidic or alkaline conditions. Specific flame retardant additives can also be incorporated to make the polymer grid self extinguishing for use in underground "gassy" environments.

Jan 1, 1992

By Kot Unrug

Fully grouted tensioned bolts provide a desirable compressive of laminated roof and bondage along the entire bolt length, at the same time the entire surface of the hole is protected against penetration of moisture. This is particularly important in shale strata, where, when left unprotected by a partial grout column, moisture penetrates to the annular space, and weathers rock around the bolt hole, having an easy access to the bedding planes which are strongly hydrophilic. The most desirable are thrust tensioned rebar bolts that can be installed with one procedure step, and can secure a desired pre-stressing. Such bolts have a forged conventional head and offer no hazard to miners in low clearance mines, whose number increase constantly due to the depletion of reserves in thicker seams. The presented field-testing program has been based on instrumented bolts allowing for monitoring of tension at installation and at a chosen time interval after. The tested system is based on rebar bolts installed with two speed Fosroc resin (fast at the top and stow at the bottom), and mechanical compression by the bolting machine at installation. Combination of several different washer -- plate arrangements have been tested. The results are reported with their interpretation, and recommendations directly towards strata control requirements, as well as the operational considerations for efficiency of installation.

Jan 1, 2002

By Bruce W. King, David A. Newman

"Underground mines have always been an integral part of the limestone industry. However, beginning in the 1990s, the number of underground limestone mines has increased for many reasons including• Stripping ratios at surface quarries have become uneconomic.• Existing surface quarries have reached the mineral boundaries, and the remaining stone reserves are underground.• Surface access to the entirety of the limestone reserve is limited by development or infrastructure.• The once-rural setting of the surface quarry is now surrounded by subdivisions and development. An underground mine is less intrusive and takes the mining operation out of the public eye.• For larger markets, an underground mine enables year-round production without the sequence of overburden stripping in the winter to expose mineable stone for summer production. This is common at many surface quarries.Multiple-level operations are a natural extension of the decision to mine underground. Most limestone reserves, for example, the Tyrone-Oregon-Camp Nelson, Hermitage-CartersLebanon- Ridley, and Salem Limestones, are sufficiently thick to accommodate multiple levels. Multiple-level mines should be planned by considering each level separately and then integrating the individual levels into a larger mine plan. Failure to plan all the levels of a multiple-level mine in concert can result in ground control (back, pillar, floor, and inter-level sill pillar) problems attributable to stress transfer and interaction between the levels or the necessity to leave a thicker sill pillar between adjacent levels.Multiple-level mine planning begins with geology. Once the upper level back horizon is identified, the geology, rock strength, and physical properties in each level are used to• identify the optimal back horizon• quantify whether back support is required and, if so, the type, spacing, and length of the back support• determine the pillar centers• determine the total mining height, including floor shots"

Jan 1, 2016

By Houquan Zhang, Yu Wu, Yanlong Chen, Zhenfu Luo, Aihong Lu

"A non-destructive detection scheme for bolt installation quality was designed by adopting the method of non-destructive detection on bolt installation quality. Based on the field measurements, a random non-destructive detection method for determining the characteristic length including anchoring length, free segment length and initial axial load of bolt was discussed, and the characteristics of increasing bolt axial load in the initial stable stage was obtained. The results show that the bolt axial load and deformation of surrounding rocks correlate each other. Compared with the traditional detection technique for bolt installation quality, the non-destructive detection method has obvious advantages such as random, accuracy, and economic. The method provides a reliable basis for bolt support optimization and stability control of surrounding rocks.INTRODUCTIONBolt support in roadway can make the surrounding rocks and bolt form a structure in the early stage of roadway development through the bolt pre-tension, which can maximize the self-bearing capacity of surrounding rocks. Thus it is a form of active support (Kang, 2007). In order to make the bolt play an active supporting role, it needs to ensure the installation quality of bolting. Thus the bolts can supply a high initial anchoring force and control the deformation of surrounding rocks (Shan, 2009; Wei, 2012). Moreover, bolt supporting is a concealed work. Once installation quality problems appear; it will be difficult for effective detection and screening (Xie, 2008).THE PROBLEMS OF BOLT INSTALLATION QUALITY IN COAL MINE AND ITS DETECTIONThe Problems of the In Situ Bolt InstallationDue to the problems in installation environment, machine, and technique, and workers proficiency (Li, 2003), there are many problems exist in bolt installation. If the borehole depth is too long, the anchoring agent will accumulate at the bottom of the bore, which reduces the anchoring length. Furthermore, if the borehole depth is short due to the poor geological condition, the exposed part of the bolt will be too Jong and the pallet cannot cling to the rock face, which prevent the pre-tension from being applied. The pre-tension is very important for bolt installation. If pre-tension is insufficient the rock bolt cannot control the deformation of surrounding rock efficiently and the bolt anchoring force will decrease considerably. The bolt length is another important parameter for anchoring quality, which will affect the control area of bolt supporting. In addition, the cleanness of drill hole has a great influence on the effective anchorage length of bolt. If the drill hole cleaning is not enough, it will directly affect the anchoring agent and the contact area of surrounding rocks, which will decrease the effective anchorage length and initial anchor-force."

Jan 1, 2016

By A. K. Bhattacharyya

The excessive displacement of the seam floor in headings (i.e. roadways) called 'floor-heave' is often experienced in the underground mines of the Southern Coalfield of New South Wales. Apart from interfering with the mining operations, the phenomenon could be detrimental to the stability of the pillars left for support leading to an unpredictable increase in the subsidence of the overlying strata. The latter could pose a serious problem, particularly in the design of partial extraction layouts of mining for areas where subsidence is to be controlled. The susceptibility of the floor of different rock materials and thicknesses in a given 'panel and pillar' partial extraction geometry was examined by two-dimensional Finite Element Modelling of the displacements, stresses and failure zones around the excavations. The modelling, assuming elastic behaviour of the materials, indicated that the maximum vertical displacements of the floor increased substantially as the Young's Modulus of the material decreased to less than 7GPa and the thickness of the layer increased. The results also discount the possibility of a properly designed panel and pillar geometry in the Southern Coalfield of New South Wales being unable to adequately control surface subsidence through the pillar, or its core independently of the yielded ribs, penetrating the floor.

Jan 1, 1992

By K. Itakura

Information about geostructure for effective rock bolting must be obtained before setting the bolt into rock in a coal mine roadway. Especially, rock type variation and distribution of discontinuities such as layer boundaries, and separation of strata and cracks all represent indispensable knowledge. To achieve in-situ evaluation of roof rock, we developed an MWD (measurement while drilling) system using mechanical data from a drilling machine for rockbolt. System hardware detects torque, thrust, revolution, and stroke of the machine, and software analyzes the mechanical data log and displays locations of discontinuities using Neural Network techniques. Also, this system is able to estimate roof rock 3-D geostructure for varied rock types and discontinuity distribution in cases of a drill hole array arrangement in roof rock. We conducted a feasibility study for it using hydraulic drilling at roadways of the Taiheiyo Coal Mine, Japan. Simultaneously, some core drillings were also performed to confirm system analysis data. For core samples, distribution of cracks was observed and the borehole wall was investigated by OFS (optical fiber scope). Must discontinuity locations estimated from roof logging were conformed with data obtained from core inspection. However, the core sample contained a number of cracks which were not found in the mechanical data log. This indicates that additional cracks were generated during and/or after core drilling by the influence of rotational force of the machine and water supply. Furthermore, in comparison with the OFS image, resolution of the discontinuity's log estimated by this system was clarified; that is, it is difficult to detect small size cracks (hairline cracks) from a mechanical data log and the core inspection by OFS. This paper outlines the new hardware system for hydraulic drilling machine and compares the discontinuity map obtained from the software system with drilling core inspection.

Jan 1, 2001

By William J. Gray

The Roof Control Division of MSHA's Pittsburgh Safety and Health Technology Center has been conducting a program to evaluate methods employed by the U.S. coal mining industry during recovery of longwall faces. The objective of this effort is to provide information on safe and efficient roof control methods currently being used to recover longwall faces. In addition to a literature review and extensive contacts with MSHA and industry personnel, 14 mines were visited to observe firsthand various aspects of longwall recovery. It is hoped that the dissemination of this information will aid in the prevention of accidents and a reduction in costly downtime during recovery.

Jan 1, 1993

By Hani Mitri

A new monitoring device called SAFEBOLT (Stress And Force Evaluator in Bolts) has been recently developed. The device SAFEBOLT, essentially replaces the load cell, it permits the monitoring of bolt axial load from the time of its installation underground. The SAFEBOLT system consists of a portable readout unit, connecting cable and the SAFEBOLT device, which is installed in the bolt head. SAFEBOLT can be installed on any industry standard rockbolt. No special installation method is required; the conventional method of bolt installation by the stoper or roofbolter remains unchanged. The device is completely encapsulated in the bolt head, which makes it resistant to corrosion, rugged, and free of any electrical wires. Pilot tests at three underground Quebec mines were carried out and helped improve the initial design of the device connector. The paper reports on two of such pilot tests.

Jan 1, 2001

By Hamid Maleki

A new failure criteria is proposed for assessment of roof stability in underground sedimentary rocks. Unlike other stability assessment techniques, this method is simple and practical, having improved mine safety and productivity in several mines. It is shown that roof movements accelerate to a critical rate prior to actual roof collapse. Critical rates vary between 0.025 inches per day to 0.2 inches per minute depending on rock mass - pillar mechanical properties. Specific critical rates are determined for three rock mass - pillar categories which are common to mining in sedimentary rocks. Time-to-caving varies from one minute to ten days on rock structural controls and type of primary support utilized.

Jan 1, 1990

By J. R. M. Hill

The U.S. Bureau of Mines is involved in research to improve geological sensing (or geo-sensing) techniques. This paper presents results from field trials of two research projects concerned with new technologies for geosensing. The goal of the first project was to develop a "smart" roof bolter drill so that it could probe into roof rock to evaluate rock conditions. The goal of the second project was to modify an existing mine-wide monitoring system in a continuous mining operation so that the system could interface with geotechnical instruments to provide near real-time geosensing. Integration of this mine-wide monitoring system with the smart roof drill to collect, reduce, and analyze geotechnical data and the potential applications of the resulting technology in mining, are described.

Jan 1, 1992

By W. G. Pariseau

A new approach to the direct inclusion of the effects of joints and geologic structure in rock mechanics analyses is applied to an elastic analysis of stability of a Lucky Friday undercut and 4111 longwall stope (WL) using the finite element method (FW). The approach is base+ on the concept of equivalent properties of a heterogeneous test volume, but does not depend on the assumption that a test volume is a representative volume element. Comparison with conventional FW results show greater variability in fields of stress, strain, displacement, safety factor and energy densities. Stability requires a knowledge of rock mass strengths as well as elastic moduli.

Jan 1, 1989

By T. N. Singh

Board and pillar system of mining has beer, practised in India in view of abundant availability of cheap labour force, low investment and quick return. Subsequently, selective mining from thick seems and partial mining under surface features boosted the trend. As s result over 2000 million tonnes of coal is locked up in form of developed pillars inclusive of about 1000 million tonnes of high grade coking coal in Jharia field alone. The trend of pillar formation is still uninterrupted as the estimated pillar reserve in this field in 1974 was only 700 million tonnes which increased to 961 million tonnes in 1983. The trend is not much different in other coalfields end as a rough estimate 100 million tonnes of virgin coal reserve is being transferred to pillar every year. The method of board and pillar mining is likely to remain moat preferred technology for decade9 to come in view of several inherent advantage in Indian mining conditions.

Jan 1, 1984

By E. M. Williams

The U.S. Bureau of Mines is investigating the use of in-seam seismic methods to monitor stress-induced changes in coal near the working face of longwall mines. Seismic surveys performed through a longwall panel and pillars near the face can provide valuable information on geologic anomalies, high stress regions, tailgate support performance and other conditions that could endanger miners or interrupt production. This paper describes the details of the equipment and data analysis techniques used, and the significant results obtained and their implications for ground control. Using seismic tomography, it is possible to conduct measurements on the pillar and reconstruct an image representing the internal velocity distribution. Successive measurements over several days identify changes in velocity attributable to changes in stress. Several field measurements were conducted at a western U.S. longwall mine to observe stress induced changes within the panel and pillars during mining. A permissible data acquisition system was designed to meet mine safety requirements for operation in gassy air. Certification from the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) was obtained, and this approved system was used to monitor stress changes in several pillars as the longwall face passed during first panel mining. Tomographic surveys were completed across the longwall panel to map the apparent abutment stresses ahead of mining. Velocity distributions show an increase in vertical stress across the panel from the headgate to the tailgate. Additionally. a yield zone along the face near the tailgate and the forward abutment approximately 100 feet outby the face in the tailgate side of the panel were detected. These results agree well with data obtained from other instrumentation emplaced in the panel near the tailgate. Using velocities for both compressional and shear waves, the Poisson's ratio was calculated for the panel.

Jan 1, 1994

By M. Bouteldja

A finite element modelling approach is developed for the evaluation of the mechanical performance of cable bolts supports in underground mine structures. The modelling approach permits the simulation of any arbitrary number or pattern of cable bolts, that can be either partially or fully grouted, with or without end plates. The modelling technique used treats each cable bolt as a set of bar elements representing the steel cable. The bond stiffness characteristics of the grout bolt interface are represented by shear springs uniformly distributed along the cable length. Coupled with a simple linear elastic analysis, this technique can serve as a dedicated numerical model for cable bolted excavations. The application of the model is illustrated with two case studies: one for a hard rock mine and another for a coal mine.

Jan 1, 1999

By Robert C. Garson

The Mine Roof Simulator at the DOE'S Mining Equipment Test Facility is described. Its use in the research and development on the behavior and response of longwall roof supports to simulated mine environment is investigated. Advanced technology analysis methods such as finite element modeling, strain gage instrumentation, and photoelastic techniques are investigated for application in roof support design two case studies are presented of test data and results.

Jan 1, 1982

By Kot F. v. Unrug

The depletion of thicker coal reserves has resulted in the thinner seams being economically attractive. Surface protection against subsidence limits the extraction ratio to 50% for the room and pillar method as a "no subsidence condition". That rule was developed for pillars with smaller width/height ratio because seams mined at the time were commonly 6 feet thick. Over time pillar ribs deteriorate around the pillar perimeter and thus decrease the area of the pillar. Using 50% extraction as the no subsidence condition in the squat pillar category (below 42 in with w/h > 7) causes unnecessary losses of reserves because squat pillars are stronger. In this paper a method is presented for design of long-term pillars. Based on the analysis of pillar deterioration and field observations, an increase of the "no subsidence" extraction rate to 60% for squat pillars is proposed.

Jan 1, 2001