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By Masakazu Takano, Koji Suzuki, Naotoshi Shinkawa

"Cement deep mixing (CDM) method successfully applied to a marine construction project in northern Vietnam is reported. The method is classified as wet method, in which cement slurry is injected into the ground. Thickness of clayey deposit subjected to improvement is from 20 m to 28 m, and the total volume of CDM improvement exceeds 460,000 m3. This is the first massive application of CDM method in the region. Three CDM barges, each equipped with four mixing shafts, were brought to the site in order to finish CDM work within a period of seven months. Cement content used in the work was 180 kg/m3 and water-cement ratio of slurry was 100%. Unconfined compression strength of stabilized soil was 1,200 kPa to 1,600 kPa in average with coefficient of variation from 0.3 to 0.4. Statistics analysis of the strength with these values gave percentage of lower strength less than 10%. Trial use of needle penetration test performed to study strength profile of a CDM column is also reported.INTRODUCTIONThe site of Lack Huyen Port Infrastructure Construction Project is located in the sea adjacent to Cat Hai Island, offshore Hai Phong city which is around 100 km east of Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam. Left side of Fig. 1 shows the location of the site. The project contains development of container terminal, dredging of waterway, construction of sand protection dyke to prevent waterway from being buried, and bridge construction to connect the island to the mainland.Joint venture of Penta Ocean Construction and Toa Corporation was awarded Package 6 of the project, in which reclamation of container terminal area, retaining wall construction and terminal road construction were included. Plan of the site is presented in right side of Fig. 1. The site work has been started in June 2013 and is scheduled to finish within 4 years."

Jan 1, 2015

By Ganesh Deepak K., Anjana R. K., Dr. Kumar Pitchumani N., Rajasekharam R. M. V. M. S. S.

The Phase 2 of Chennai Metro is being introduced in the city to ease the dependence on the existing transportation systems. Phase 2 is a combination of underground and elevated metro stretches comprising of three corridors. The current study focusses on the underground stretch of Corridor 3 which has a total of 29 underground stations. Construction of the underground cut and cover stations results in ground movements, which in turn impact the structures adjacent to the excavations. The greenfield ground settlement can be evaluated with the help of empirical approach or an approach requiring finite element modelling (FEM). The paper compares empirical and FEM approaches with regards to ground conditions in Chennai. Further, with the predicted ground settlements, building damage assessment is performed. The damage category of a building is defined based on the estimated tensile strains. This paper also compares the building damage assessment with empirical method and finite element modelling.

Nov 1, 2022

By Gerald Verbeek, Erick Baziw

"Downhole Seismic Testing (DST) is an important geotechnical testing technique for site characterization as it provides low strain (<10-5) in-situ interval compression (Vp) and shear (Vs) wave velocity estimates. These velocities are determined by obtaining relative arrival times of source waves as they travel through the stratigraphy and are recorded by one or more vertically offset seismic sensors. A challenging aspect of this process is to characterize the seismic data sets to determine the analysis method that will result in the most accurate interval velocity values. This paper introduces an assessment technique which utilizes linearity estimates (i.e., hodograms fitting straight lines) from the polarization analysis in conjunction with crosscorrelation coefficient calculations of the full waveforms as well as the deviation of the source wave frequency spectrum from a desirable bell-shaped curve. The paper will provide an overview of the technique and include some examples of actual data sets where the technique was applied to analyze those data sets.1. INTRODUCTIONIn general terms, Downhole Seismic Testing (DST) such as Seismic Cone Penetration Testing (SCPT) is a geotechnical technique for measuring in-situ shear and compression wave velocities (VS and VP respectively). The main goal in DST is to obtain arrival times as the source wave travels through the soil profile of interest, and from these arrival times the velocities are then calculated. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the typical DST configuration: a seismic source is used to generate a seismic wave train at the ground surface. One or more downhole seismic receivers are used to record the seismic wave train at predefined depth increments. The downhole receiver(s) may be positioned at selected test depths in a borehole or advanced as part of an instrumentation package as in the case of SCPT. When triggered by the seismic source a data recording system records the response of the downhole receiver(s)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Michael G. Batten, Brian D. Keaney

]The Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and the harbors on the James River routinely use precast concrete piles founded in the Yorktown formation to support bridges and other coastal structures. However, axial pile resistances for large diameter piles in this area have been historically overestimated on past projects. This may be due to a common assumption that very large unit end bearing resistance will be developed for a large diameter displacement pile that is driven a significant depth. This assumption is integrated in the Nordlund (1963; 1979) method which is commonly used to estimate axial pile resistance for bridge foundations. A static and dynamic pile load testing program was implemented as part of the Hampton Roads Bridge and Tunnel Expansion project in Norfolk, VA in the James River. A primary objective of this program was to calibrate an axial resistance calculation method against the measured load test results. A method developed by Eslami and Fellenius (1997) that uses CPTu data directly was effective at calibrating to the measured load test results, and allowed for clearer interpretation of the unit resistance values than indirect, semi-empirical methods that require interpretation of soil friction angle and undrained shear strength.

Sep 8, 2021

By Alex Grenoble, Alex Reeb, George Filz, Farzad Abedzadeh

"This paper summarizes available information on the characteristics and properties of deep-mixed soilcement produced by the wet method. The topics covered in this paper include: unit weight, unconfined compressive strength, strength variability for field mixed materials, influence of curing time, influence of consolidation pressure, Young’s modulus, differences in strength and stiffness between small and large samples, creep deformations, Poisson’s ratio, and tensile strength. In addition, this paper discusses the development of design considerations and recommended property values for a project that uses soilcement to protect an existing dam penstock from loads applied by an overlying stability berm. Some of the key recommendations for the deep-mixed soil-cement to be used in this project are that (1) a curved strength envelope that includes tensile strength can be used in the analysis, (2) the stress-strain and strength properties can be characterized using Duncan and Chang's (1970) hyperbolic model, and (3) a specification based on the median unconfined compressive strength value is appropriate.INTRODUCTIONFor many projects, including foundation and embankment support, deep mixing can be designed based on simplified procedures and following standardized guidelines (e.g., FHWA 2013). However for unusually complex or critical projects, it is often necessary to perform numerical analyses, and in order to perform these numerical analyses well, a thorough understanding of the material properties is needed.This paper summarizes information on the characteristics and properties of deep-mixed soil-cement produced by the wet method, and it discusses the development of design considerations and recommended property values for a specific project, herein referred to as the penstock project, that requires numerical analyses. For the penstock project, a horseshoe-shaped enclosure of soil-cement is being considered beside and above an existing dam penstock to protect it from loads applied by an overlying stability berm that will be constructed for seismic remediation. The concept is to use soilcement created by the deep mixing method along the sides of the penstock and to use compacted soilcement above the deep mixing to create the crown of the protective soil-cement zone around the penstock. For this application, the soil-cement stiffness, rather than its strength, is the controlling design parameter. To achieve the necessary soil-cement stiffness, the strength will be high enough that the factor-of-safety values against instability along potential failure surfaces passing through the soil-cement are high. Following conventional practice, the soil-cement acceptance criteria will be based on the unconfined compressive strength, and the specified strength will be selected to produce the desired modulus value."

Jan 1, 2015

By Arash Khosravifar Ph. D. P. E., Thomas Torkelson P. E., Milad Souri Ph. D. P. E.

Kinematic demands from lateral ground deformations can be a major cause of damage to maritime and highway transportation structures such as wharves, piers, and bridges. These kinematic demands are different from the ground deformations in the free field in that the resisting forces from piles will reduce the ground deformations to some extent (i.e., pile pinning effect). Current design codes for wharf structures allow the beneficial resisting forces from pile pinning effects to be incorporated in pseudostatic slope stability analysis (e.g., ASCE/COPRI 61-14). While design guidelines that are specifically developed for bridge foundations provide recommendations on how to incorporate the pile pinning effects (e.g., Caltrans 2012), their applicability to wharf structures need to be evaluated. This study uses the results of a large-scale centrifuge test on a pile-supported wharf structure to evaluate the accuracy of available Newmark sliding block analysis in estimating the lateral ground deformations. Pile pinning effects are incorporated based on the approach outlined by Caltrans. The results of this study support the use of existing pile pinning methods that were primarily developed for bridge foundations in maritime structures (e.g., wharves and piers). It was found that median Newmark displacements provide a good estimate of the permanent end-of-shaking displacements and that the median plus 1 standard deviation Newmark displacements provide a good estimate of the peak transient displacements. Design considerations for use in the Newmark sliding block analysis to estimate the kinematic demands on piles are discussed.

Oct 1, 2022

By R. Gerritsen, Erwin de Jong, E. van der Velde, C. te Boekhorst

"In recent years the market for Mixed-In-Place soil mix techniques in the Netherlands has been growing rapidly. Initially the technique was used to create cut-off walls near river dikes and as a vibration free method to create retaining walls for building pits. Studies have been undertaken and projects are executed in order to strengthen the dike itself by the use of Mixed-In-Place techniques. In February 2012 Bauer Funderingstechniek started the construction of the first polder in the Netherlands with their approved Mixed-In-Place cut-off walls. This article explains the background of the use of this cost-effective and durable construction method and discusses how the challenging requirements from the client were fulfilled, both in design and execution. The quality assurance and quality control consisted of preliminary soil and mixture investigations, extensive measurements during construction and leakage detection through geophysical methods. The information is presented in 3 case histories, all subprojects of a large infrastructural project ‘Leeuwarden Vrij-Baan’ in the Netherlands.INTRODUCTIONThe Netherlands have a worldwide reputation in creating their own country by reclaiming land from the sea. Since the 15th century the Dutch have been creating “polders”, areas of reclaimed land below sea level, surrounded by dykes and with a mechanically maintained water level. In the 20th century the use of artificial polders became an interesting construction method for creating underpasses below motorways and canals using watertight geomembranes to create an impermeable layer that separated the polder from its surroundings. These kinds of structures have one big disadvantage, they need a lot of space. The main idea of such a structure is that the upward water pressure under the geomembrane has to be in balance with the remaining soil on top of it. For this reason, the geomembrane has to be placed at a depth significantly deeper than the polder surface, depending on the hydraulic head in the aquifer. Slopes of 1:3 (1 vertical : 3 horizontal) are most commonly used, resulting in very large open excavations and massive earthworks, even for relatively small underpasses. Special measures can be taken to reduce the spatial use with vertical limits, but these measures will increase the building costs (Gerritsen et al. 2014)."

Jan 1, 2015

By Harry Schnabel, Mitchell L. Fong, Douglas R. Jenevein, Thomas S. Lee

"The Warm Springs Extension (WSX) is one of a series of projects that will eventually extend the Bay Area Rapid Transit System (BART) from Fremont to San Jose, California. A cut and cover tunnel was used for a portion of the extension that runs through Fremont Central Park to minimize the impacts that an at-grade railway would have on the Park. A cement deep soil mix (CDSM) wall was selected by the engineer as the preferred method of providing structural support and groundwater cut-off for a portion of the tunnel where it passes through an important aquifer and near Lake Elizabeth. In addition to the CDSM wall, a jet grout plug was constructed at the base of the tunnel to provide a complete groundwater cut-off.This paper will discuss the unique quality assurance and quality control measures taken for the soil mix wall and jet grout plug as well as the methods used to repair leaks and mitigate water seepage through the exposed wall and grout plug.PROJECT DESCRIPTIONThe Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Warm Springs Extension (WSX) project is located south of the existing Fremont BART station extending 8.9-km (5.4 miles) to Warm Springs District in Fremont, California. The WSX project has been divided into two contracts with different delivery methods. In order to minimize impacts to Fremont Central Park, a subway was selected at this portion of the alignment under a conventional design/bid/build contract.The Fremont Central Park Subway (FCPS) which begins on the south side of Walnut Ave and ends just north of Paseo Padre Parkway and is about 2.3-km (1.4 miles) long. Fig. 1 shows the entire WSX and the FCPS project. The FCPS contract consists of a cut-and-cover subway box, subway transition structures, ventilation structures and a section of which transverses Lake Elizabeth (a man-made lake). The geologic conditions consist of fill (sand, silt, clay and construction debris), Young Alluvium (clay and silt), Basin Deposits (clay, silt, and sand), and Older Alluvium (sand and gravel) as shown in Fig. 2.HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE PROJECT SITEThe FCPS is dominated by two geologic features - the Hayward Fault and the Above Hayward Fault (AHF) aquifer. The AHF aquifer provides a significant source and storage of water for the local water district. The underground subway will penetrate this aquifer and is up to 11m (36 ft) below the groundwater table. No groundwater was allowed to be pumped during construction of the subway box by Alameda County Water District (ACWD). To facilitate excavation for the subway box, temporary cut-off walls and a grout plug were designed to retain and resist high differential hydraulic pressure. The following section describes the selection of a deep soil mixing method for water cutoff. Design of the grout plug has been described in Lee, et al., 2011 and Fong and Lee, 2009, and is not the focus of this paper."

Jan 1, 2015

By Piotr Kozlowski, Stanley L. Worst, Matthew J. Niermann

The Waterman Hospital in Tavares, Florida was undergoing an expansion and required a below-grade excavation immediately adjacent to the Emergency Department. This wing of the hospital was under high traffic and required uninterrupted access for ambulances as well as helicopter landings. The below-grade expansion was also next to a part of the hospital which did not have a basement. Tiedback soldier beams and wood lagging were used as the earth retention system where the shoring line was not immediately adjacent to the existing structure. Structural jet grout underpinning was used to support the existing building and to serve as the earth retention system in the more sensitive area. Jet grout underpinning was chosen to minimize movements, loss of ground and settlement of the structure which was bearing on clean sand deposits. This paper will discuss the design, quality control and construction of jet grouting and its application to this project. INTRODUCTION Project Background The expansion of the Waterman Hospital included an addition to the Emergency Department. This addition was located adjacent to the existing hospital building in a congested area with limited access. The north side of the addition was bordered by the ambulance drop-off area. The south side of the addition was bordered by the helipad landing area. Both areas had to remain open and fully accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

Jan 1, 2019

By Jr NeSmith

"Drilled Displacement piles are a product of screw pile technology originally developed in Europe. The process involves rotating tool into the ground that displaces the soil laterally as it advances, then grouting or concreting through the hollow stem of the tool as it is withdrawn. They were first introduced in the United States in the 1990’s and have become a mature and accepted technology since that time. They are now used to support a variety of heavily loaded structures including electric power and LNG facilities, stadiums and arenas, airports and mid- to high-rise commercial and residential facilities. In urban environments, the technique has a number of advantages including, low noise and vibrations, no removal of the existing soil, and reduced pile material cost due to the improved stress state of granular soils after installation (smaller or shorter piles can be used). For these reasons, displacement piles have been used to support various facilities in Northeastern United States (US). The paper presents case histories of the performance of displacement piles in the Northeastern US including the use of full displacement elements as a settlement limiting ground improvement system.INTRODUCTION“Drilled Displacement” (DD) is an industry umbrella term for a number of proprietary or commercially available cast-in-place pile installation systems which involve a hollow-stem tool that laterally displaces soil as it advances and the placement of grout or concrete through the hollow-stem tool as it is withdrawn. The systems include grout/concrete placement methods by both sand-cement grout pumped under pressure and tremie grout/concrete placement through bottom-hole discharge. The system discussed in this paper includes grout pumped under pressure, also referred to as Auger Pressure Grouted Displacement (APGD). A schematic of the APGD tool is shown in Figure 1. The tools require significant torque and downward force to advance; a typical installation platform is shown in Figure 2."

Jan 1, 2016

By Nick O’Riordan, Kaitlyn L. Fleming, Michael Riemer, Youssef M. A. Hashash, Stephen McLandrich, Mohamad Jammoul, Pierre Gouvin, Andrew Yeskoo

"To accommodate urbanization, cities are developing more underground space as a means to house public transportation systems and other entities. Underground developments often require construction of deep excavations in an environment dense with infrastructure. The success of such a project is related to the amount of impact imposed on adjacent structures and economic activity; impact should be limited to insignificant amounts in order to mitigate damage and disruption. Thus, large-scale urban construction projects require extensive monitoring of ground movements and installed support performance to facilitate informed decisions for adjustment of construction activities and support design when necessary.In downtown San Francisco, a unique large-scale excavation in saturated soft soils was constructed for the Transbay Transit Center (TTC). Construction of the excavation began in April 2012 and was completed almost two years later in February 2014. To monitor ground and structure response to construction, the project team used an extensive instrumentation network that included automatic inclinometers, piezometers, strain gages and total stations paired with survey markers. Innovative imaging techniques developed a record of construction in order to relate measured deformations to construction activity.Transbay Transit CenterThe Transbay Transit Center (TTC) is being constructed as a modern day transportation hub in downtown San Francisco to replace the former Transbay Terminal. The project is located in the South of Market area, less than half a mile from the San Francisco Bay. The final center will connect eight counties in the Bay Area through 11 different transportation systems, some of which will be housed in the TTC including Caltrain, Golden Gate Transit and California High Speed Rail. The aboveground structure will consist of two levels for retail and a third level with a bus terminal beneath a rooftop garden. There will be two subgrade levels to serve as a lower concourse and the train platforms. This structure required construction of a deep excavation closely surrounded by buildings and roads in an area thriving with economic activity."

Jan 1, 2015

By S. P. Lin

The numerical models of nonlinear piles for deep foundations are studied in this paper. The purpose of these is to clarify the mechanical behaviour of deep foundation nonlinear piles subjected to axial and lateral loadings. Based on the site data of p-y curve as well as t-z curve of foundation soils, it is possible to evaluate pile performance under above mentioned loads by means of combined FEM/FDM models. Numerical examples are presented in tall building and offshore jacket for illustrating the technique, it show high efficiency of these models. Some information to be interested by design engineers are given, especially for those who pay very concerns on the interaction behaviours of structure and its pile foundation.

Jan 1, 2010

By Eleonora Di Mario, Colin B. Turnbull, Matthew G. Mills, Chengbin Miao, Wilhelm S. Degen

"In the past decade, the ‘zero-dredge’ philosophy has become the preferred option for the formation of marine seawalls and reclamations, compared to the partially or fully dredged options, as this solution presents several environmental advantages. Recent relevant project experience is presented herein in order to highlight key design principles and construction issues central to the successful construction and performance of a sloping rubble seawall founded on soft soil improved by stone columns. If designed and installed with proper quality control, correct treatment intensity and sensible construction staging, stone columns are a safe and cost effective method for seawall foundations. This paper provides guidelines with regards to the design, construction and quality control for the correct implementation of stone columns as a foundation element for sloping rubble marine seawalls.INTRODUCTIONBenefits of sloping marine seawalls founded on stone columnsTo suit the current environmental requirements in Hong Kong, recent projects are tending to favour zero-dredge solutions, such as the Hong Kong Boundary Crossing Facility and the forthcoming Three-Runway System. The installation of stone columns allows the underlying deposits, generally consisting of very soft to soft clay and silt (soft soil), to improve in strength to the extent that the seawall can be directly placed on the seabed. This negates the need to dredge the soft soil and, therefore, this ground improvement technique represents an ideal solution for zero-dredge projects.Stone columns can also provide several other beneficial effects, including: accelerated drainage, reduced settlement, increased slope stability and soil reinforcement in the event of an earthquake. Stone columns, in contrast to competing cementitious methods, are a very ductile foundation method. This ductile behaviour is part of the design concept of stone columns in soft soil. Past projects located in Hong Kong and elsewhere, with an improved soft soil layer thickness of over 15m, have shown that stone columns can remain fully functional in terms of both drainage and horizontal reinforcement, even after settlements of over 3m and lateral displacements of up to 1m have occurred."

Jan 1, 2017

By Malek Smadi, Yazen A. Khasawneh

"New embankments were constructed mostly on soft clays as part of interstate I69 extension in southern Indiana. The embankments serve as bridge abutments and as part of the fill sections along the interstate extension alignment. The height of the embankments range from 50-ft to 125-ft with a maximum foundation thickness of about 75-ft. The foundation soils comprise relatively high compressible fine grained soils. A fully coupled Hydro-Mechanical numerical simulations were conducted for optimizing the construction stages of the embankments. The objective of the staged construction is to allow for sufficient effective stress and undrained shear strength gain to ensure foundation stability under the stage load. Wick drains were utilized to shorten the drainage path and thus accelerate achieving the required undrained shear strength. The extensive field investigation and laboratory testing programs provided a good understanding of the subsurface conditions and allowed the use of a relatively advanced soil constitutive model in the numerical simulations of the staged construction. The effectively designed instrumentation program allowed for monitoring the settlement and pore water dissipation during construction. The pore water pressure, and surface and subsurface settlements from the numerical model predictions reasonably agreed with the instrumentation data over the construction period.INTRODUCTIONThe stability of soft fine grained foundation soils due to embankment construction is dependent on the undrained shear strength of such soils. The permeability, compressibility, and drainage boundaries control the foundation soils response (settlement magnitude and rate) to loading. The settlement magnitude is a function of minerology and soil structure. The settlement rate which is equivalent to the rate of excess pore water pressure dissipation is a function of the soil permeability and drainage boundary. The dissipation rate control the evolution of effective stress and thus the gain of undrained shear strength. As such, if the increase in total applied load is controlled such that enough time is granted for the evolution of the total stresses into effective stresses, then the stability of the foundation soils is enhanced by the gain of the undrained shear strength. The controlled application of the total stress is the definition of the staged construction. From the definition of the staged construction, it is obvious that the process is a coupling of the hydraulic and mechanical responses of the foundation soils."

Jan 1, 2017

By Ali S. Fayad

"In June 2014, Orange County Flood Control District (OCFCD) completed construction improvements of the East Garden Grove-Wintersburg Channel for a price of $42 million. Instead of the pre-existing traditional trapezoidal levee, the channel was improved with a vertical compact levee. Dubbed Soil-Mix-Sandwich (SMS), this geo-structural and environmental solution for coastal channel improvements, underlain by liquefiable soil strata, was both a design and construction innovation. It employed Deep Soil Cement Mixing (DSCM) within the confines of a hydraulically-pressed (Giken Method) sheet pile duo. SMS was unique because it incorporated both subterranean and supra-dredge-line soil mixing within a very narrow workspace. Its DSCM pattern aimed at optimum densification of the workspace and was confirmed during the construction process. It availed the DSCM sub-contractor (Hayward Baker Inc.) the opportunity to demonstrate the fitness of their huge wet-mixing machinery within a very confined access-area and introduced approximately 70,000 cubic yards of DSCM within a limited 15 foot workspace width that stretched for a mile. The sheet pile duo created a construction-enclosure that became a stay-in-place load resisting system. PROJECT CHRONOLOGY AND LOCATIONAn Orange County Flood Control District (OCFCD) project-report was commissioned to study the East Garden Grove Wintersburg channel (OCFCD facility # C05). The report examined the hydraulic conveyance of the C05 channel and was concluded in 1994 by Williamson & Schmidt. The project-report did not encompass extensive geologic studies; but it provided several alternatives for channel improvement. It recommended a single row of sheet piles as the preferred alternative for the downstream reach.The most downstream reach of the C05 channel is located in an environmentally sensitive area, in City of Huntington Beach, California, USA. Its site includes seismic chasms that surface within the C05-footprint (the Newport- Inglewood tectonic fault). Extensive deposits of liquefiable soil exist beneath the channel. Furthermore, tidal-influence prevails against the channel levee. Implementation of a successful design for channel improvement emerged after several traditional concepts were deemed unacceptable by geotechnical consultants. OC Public Works (on behalf of OCFCD) was in need of a design and construction technique that mitigated many associated risks. From these circumstances, Soil-Mix-Sandwich was born and was referred to in the rest of this discussion as SMS. OC Public Works required the SMS design concept to undergo verification by independent geotechnical consultants. SMS chronology from conception to construction can be summarized as follows:"

Jan 1, 2015

By Bernard H. Hertlein

"When the Deep Foundations Institute (DFI) was founded, quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC) of foundation construction was rudimentary. Nondestructive testing (NDT) was a nascent technology, known to very few people, and very limited in its capabilities and applications. In the four decades since the DFI became a reality, NDT researchers and practitioners have taken advantage of technological advances to improve those existing testing and analysis techniques, and to create new ones that have all contributed to the engineering body of knowledge. This has enabled contractors to improve the quality and reliability of their products, and engineers to design more efficient foundations.Through its regular series of seminars, publications and annual meetings, the DFI has been vitally important in educating the deep foundations industry about the capabilities and benefits of NDT methods. In turn, NDT results have helped the industry identify problems in deep foundation construction, determine the causes of those problems, and improve design constructability and construction practices to increase the quality, reliability and efficiency of all types of deep foundations. This presentation reviews the evolution of several important NDT methods, and the contributions that they have made to foundation quality.THE BEGINNINGSThe Deep Foundations Institute (DFI) was incorporated in 1976 in the State of New Jersey as a 501(c)(6) non-profit association. The DFI is a consensus organization of Contractors, Engineers, Owners and Suppliers involved with the design and construction of all types of deep foundations. The purpose of the DFI was and still is to improve the planning, design and construction of deep foundations by educating all those involved, sharing best practices, and promoting the adoption of new technologies that improve quality, productivity or safety.This is well expressed in the current DFI Mission Statement: To bring together multi-disciplined individuals and organizations to find common ground and create a shared vision and a consensus voice for continual advancement in the deep foundations industry.At the time the DFI was born, nondestructive testing for verifying the quality and integrity of deep foundations was in its infancy, its growth constrained by the technology, or lack thereof. Some visionary engineers of the time understood the physics of the potential methods, and therefore the possible capabilities, but were frustrated by the lack of technology to work with. Electronic equipment was mostly analog, and the few digital data acquisition systems that were available had such slow sampling rates that they were incapable of recording rapid event sequences or short duration events such as those used in modern integrity tests. For example, Jean Paquet, a leading research engineer at the French National Construction Institute, (Centre Experimentale de Recherche et d’Etudes du Batiment et des Travaux Publics, or CEBTP) patented the frequency-based analysis procedure for the Transient Dynamic Response (TDR) method, aka Sonic Mobility or Impulse Response, in 1974, but it was not until 1977 that analog data acquisition systems became fast enough to turn his theory into a reality."

Jan 1, 2017

By Lok M. Sharma

Development of brownfields is of great interest in these days. Such fields are not easily adaptable for foundations of structures. The uncertainties in ground behavior present challenges of unpredictable subsidence that could be detrimental to the build up facility. A desalination plant had to be located along the seashore, close to the needy population and the existing water supply infrastructure. The available site had been developed as a recreational park area over a dumped construction demolition debris landfill along the coastline. To construct a desalination plant comprised primarily of large concrete basin tanks on slab, founded on the debris fill had its challenges. A ground improvement system in the form of vibro replacement stone columns was designed and constructed. Approximately 5,000 stone columns were installed across the site. This paper describes the analysis process, the design, field load testing, and installation of stone columns. Difficulties during construction and monitoring aspects are briefly described. The plant started operations in the summer of 2008 and to date has performed satisfactorily. When properly designed, the development of brownfields is achievable at other sites.

Jan 1, 2009

By James P. Chivilo, Gregory R. Meeder, Scott J. DiFiore, Matthew H. Johnson

New construction in metropolitan areas has direct impacts on immediate neighbors and abutters. While noise and dust are generally nuisance concerns, demolition, vibrations, excavation, and dewatering can cause structural damage to adjacent structures. Different cities, states, or jurisdictions have different regulations that dictate requirements, roles, or responsibilities for varying parties during construction. The authors will introduce and discuss risks of new construction adjacent to existing structures, and the legal framework in Illinois which requires the owner of the new construction project to provide adequate protections for adjacent existing structures. The authors, who are engineers and attorneys, will discuss technical and legal concerns, and will highlight the importance of early and frequent communication among project participants to manage risks, despite whether or not any local regulations exist to drive the process. RISKS IN ADJACENT CONSTRUCTION New construction in metropolitan areas inherently involves some combination of noise, dust, ground-borne vibrations, earth excavation, and subgrade dewatering. These issues have potential to directly and adversely affect abutters and their property. Noise and dust can be nuisance concerns, while vibrations, excavation, and dewatering can result in damage to abutters’ structures. Noise and dust are unlikely to lead to physical damage to abutters’ property, and can be controlled with limited work hours and good housekeeping practices. Vibrations and excavations, however, if not well understood, planned for, and mitigated, can result in serious damage to abutters’ structures. In turn, this damage introduces additional and often significant costs and schedule delays.

Jan 1, 2019

By Brent Wilkins

The project team was tasked with the design and installation of a deep foundation system to support an expansion to a power generating station in Glenrock WY. Cast-in-place piles installed by a fixed mast drilling platform were assessed to be the most efficient foundation system for the subgrade conditions and range of design loads for the project. It was determined that conventional augered, cast-in-place piles could not be installed to the required pile toe elevations. Subsurface materials consisted of interbedded coarse- and fine-grained soils to about 23 ft to 30 ft depth below the ground surface, underlain by carbonaceous shale (claystone) with interbedded sandstone. The overburden materials varied from very soft to medium stiff and loose to dense. The claystone was typically foliated and very weak to weak whereas the sandstone was typically massive and very weak to weak. The site characterization consisted of a variety of field and laboratory programs including soil borings with Standard Penetration Tests, pressure-meter testing, and geophysical testing. A load test program was performed involving the compressive, lateral, and tensile testing of piles ranging from 14-in to 24-in diameter. Compression test piles were instrumented with vibrating wire strain gages. The paper includes a discussion of the regional and local geologic and geotechnical parameters, particularly the results of the various in situ and laboratory test programs. The selected foundation system is introduced. Load test results are then presented along with analysis and discussion of these results with regard to performance of the piles in the claystone.

Jan 1, 2009

By Richard Stone, Rouzbeh Afsharhasani, Moses Karakouzian

"Caliche, a hardened sedimentary deposit of calcium carbonate that occurs worldwide, generally in arid or semiarid regions, is frequently encountered in Las Vegas, Nevada. The presence of a caliche layer in a soil profile affects the response of deep foundations to axial load. This paper studies the stiffening effect of caliche layers on the elastic settlement of a pile foundation. In order to evaluate the response in a layered soil-caliche profile, finite element analyses were performed on a typical-sized single pile and a pile group, both having constant diameter and length of the pile. The results indicate that the stiffening effect from the caliche is noteworthy, and a layer with a relative thickness of at least one pile width, regardless of its location, reduces the pile settlement for both single piles and group of piles systems by at least 50%.IntroductionThe presence of cemented materials in the soil profile influences the settlement response of foundations. One type of cemented material that can be found in arid places around the world is a sedimentary deposit of calcium carbonate called caliche. Caliche, a hardened sedimentary deposit of calcium carbonate, is common in arid and semi-arid urban areas, such as Las Vegas, Nevada (Wyman, et al. 1993).Caliche is mostly observed in lacustrine, river, and alluvial fan deposits (Jr.C.C 1970). It is also found in Central and Western Australia, the Kalahari Desert, the High Plains of the Western U.S., and the Sonoran Desert of the U.S. and Mexico.Some conditions required for the formation of caliche are that country or basement rocks must be a carbonate type, carbonate must be present in the soil zone of the area, climate regime is semi-arid to arid, there exists widespread capillary activity, and carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the environment. As a result, caliche occurs as a product of the carbonization process (Atabey, Atabey and Kara 1998). In such areas where foundations are constructed on thin rock layers (caliche), special geotechnical design conditions should be considered, particularly if the supporting rock layer is underlain by a weaker material."

Jan 1, 2015