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The energy dispersion X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis technique is a rapid and accurate method for describing sample?s element component and percentage composition. On the base of profound research for the national and international development and research condition, the author researched the EDXRF analyze technique and the EDXRF analyzer?s principle in depth, the difficulties and the key points for research and development of EDXRF analyzer; gave a scheme for re-search of bench EDXRF analyzer; researched some algorithms used in energy spectrum analysis; developed the energy spectrum analysis software based on the Visual C++ 6.0; together with the energy spectrum analysis software, the author designed and processed the structural of the bench XRF analyzer and integrated the import X-ray tube, thermoelectrically cooled Si-PIN photodiode X-ray detector and pulse amplitude analyzer as a model machine. The result shows: The model machine can be used in multi-element analysis at the same time for different types of dry mineral samples, with fast analysis speed, accurate model and high stability.

Jan 1, 2014

By B. Csoke

The Bond and the Hardgrove methods are widely used for the determination of the material?s grindability. Generally, the determination of the Bond work index of inhomogeneous materials can be carried out with high deviation using the conventional apparatuses and methods, because of the highly different grindability of components. This is more significant when the composite cement?s grindability is measured, which highly affects the design and operation of cement grinding mills. A possible solution can be the combined application of the Bond-method with the determination of the component?s weight ratio in the product and perform the Bond measurement until the steady state conditions of grindability coefficient (G) and chemical composition of the components are reached. To prove the applicability of the above mentioned idea systematic Bond and Hardgrove grindability tests were carried out of two phase composite materials. The experimental results showed that the application of the combined procedure is proven in order to have a more accurate and reliable calculation of the Bond work index of composite materials, especially when the components have significant difference in the grindability and concentration. The measurements also showed the possibilities and limits of the grindability test methods.

Sep 1, 2012

By M. Q. Xu

During the flowsheet development for a potential commercial Cu/Ni separation plant at the In-co?s Sudbury operation, extensive laboratory and miniplant studies were carried out. There are two potential feed streams for Cu/Ni separation at the existing operation. It is shown that Cu/Ni separation from the rougher concentrate is relatively simple without need of regrind. However, Cu/Ni separation can be difficult from the bulk concentrate because of the presence of excess flotation reagents in the bulk concentrate slurry and locked particles. Excess flotation reagents created excess froth increasing entrainment. By replacing the slurry water with tap water and with addition of some hydrogen peroxide, entrainment is minimized and good Cu/Ni separation is achieved on the bulk concentrate. Fine regrind is required to increase liberation of the locked particles for ultimately high copper recovery at the minimal nickel content.

Jan 1, 2014

"The business importance of water for mining companies is unequivocal as it may affect several aspects of mining projects ranging from the life-and-death license to operate to the imperative economic viability. It is thus no wonder that nearly all mining companies acknowledge water-related risks, issues and opportunities in their respective sustainability report. Somehow, this procedure has fostered the idea that water frugality could be the sustainable solution to several water-related issues. The regular exercise of water accounting should then follow as a key strategic requirement. Water accounting is defined as the application of a consistent and structured approach to identifying, measuring, recording and reporting information about water. However, several factors discussed herein have led to the fact that some water accounts are still produced using means (hardware and software) which undermatch the value actually associated with water. The resulting fuzziness about water usage could result in missed opportunities, suboptimal operations or even lead to environmental law violations. This paper subscribes to the distinctive perspective that, once underlying concepts and practical definitions have been standardized under a supported framework, such as the openly available Water Accounting Framework (WAF) published by the Minerals Council of Australia, most of the remaining water accounting issues may be boiled down to accuracy issues and, ultimately, to how much accuracy is valued by the stakeholders. Using the latest WAF document as a baseline for best practices of water accounting and, borrowing concepts from the fields of sensor network design in the process industries and best practices of metal accounting, this paper reviews some essential accuracy issues to be considered when designing or analyzing water accounting systems in mineral processing. The current paper also includes some elements for a promising attempt to include the value of information paradigm inside the water accounting best practices."

Jan 1, 2014

By Sashnee Raja, Mehdi Nemati, Ashley Sissing, Susan T. L. Harrison

"Extreme thermophiles, operating at 65 - 90°C, are finding increasing application in biohydrometallurgy These microorganisms have the advantage of exhibiting better oxidation kinetics in terms of reaction rate and extent of mineral solubilisation. These extreme thermophiles are Archae, characterised by a different cell envelope structure perceived to provide reduced structural strength in comparison to bacterial envelopes, and customised metabolic pathways.The active tank bioleaching process, used for high rate leaching, is conducted in a slurry bioreactor. Here sufficient energy dissipation is required to ensure suspension of the mineral phase as well as to sustain high rates of gas liquid mass transfer. It is well known that subjection to hydrodynamic stress of sufficient magnitude may alter the physiological state of a range of micro-organisms through changed viability (ability of the microbes to grow), metabolic activity and integrity.In this paper, we report on studies carried out to quantify the ability of the extreme thermophile Sulfolobus to withstand the hydrodynamic stress environment generated at high pulp densities in the slurry bioreactor. Both a pyrite system (as a model system) and a chalcopyrite system (as an application) were studied. In laboratory reactor systems, the nature of biological responses to stress induced at high pulp density have been identified in terms of ability of the microbes to grow, their metabolic activity and rate of leaching and cell integrity. Critical operating conditions within the laboratory reactor are identified and the mechanism mediating reduced performance considered."

Jan 1, 2003

By W. H. Cheung

Nickel and cobalt production relies heavily on the processing of nickel laterite ores; these ores contain the majority of known Ni and Co reserves, 80% and 90% ~ 95%, respectively. The Caron process is used to extract Ni and Co metals from low-grade nickel laterite ores (1% Ni and 0.1% Co). It involves selective reduction of NiO and CoO minerals followed by ammoniacal leaching. Despite low metal recoveries, this process continues to be technically and economically reliable and thus commercially important globally. However, keeping the Caron process cost-effective has been a challenge for industries because of increasing economic and environmental pressures. Although studies of the Caron process have been extensive, significant improvements in recoveries of industrial processes have not been forthcoming. Reported industrial metal recovery from high iron content ore is only 80% ~ 85% for Ni and only 40% ~ 45% for Co; recovery is even lower for ores rich in magnesium. The real difficulty here is that there is no complete understanding of and control over the complex series of reactions in the ore and in the leaching solution during processing. Achieving effective metal recoveries from the Caron will require control of the mineral transformations, which affect the activation of minerals by reduction. In this study, the effect of over-reduction was investigated, which superseded the effect of activation by lowering the activity of the minerals and thus metal dissolution. Reduction was carried out in a batch reduction apparatus with 1:1 and 1:2.5 CO/CO2 gas mixtures from temperatures of 500 ~ 700°C and residence times up to 60 minutes. The pre-reduced ores were leached using a standard ammoniacal leaching test. Thermodynamic analysis and possible effects of stable phase field on leaching was examined. The results suggest that control of over reduction effects are directly related to the mineral transformation and reduction conditions.

Jan 1, 2014

By S. Serranti

A fast, reliable, and low cost characterization of ore minerals products, as they result from different processing actions, represents one of the most challenging targets in the mineral processing sector. Today different techniques are available according to different sampling strategies and analytical principles. In this paper, the possibilities offered by the adoption of hyperspectral imaging based sensing units working both at micro- and macro-scale are presented and discussed. According to the different phases and stages of ore minerals and products characterization, and starting from the analyses of the detected hyperspectral firms, it is thus possible to derive useful information about mineral flow stream properties and their physical-chemical attributes. This last aspect can be utilized to define innovative process mineralogy strategies and to implement on-line procedures at processing level. The present study discusses the effects related to the adoption of different hardware configurations, the utilization of different logics to perform the analysis and the selection of different algorithms according to the different characterization, inspection, and quality control actions to apply. Keywords: process mineralogy, hyperspectral imaging, NIR spectroscopy, surface mapping, textural analysis, quality control

Sep 1, 2012

By D. Jamróz, A. Surowiak, T. Niedoba, P. Pieta

"The separation of coal material of three types of coals originating from three various Polish hard coal mines (types 31, 34.2 and 35, according to Polish nomenclature, which were steam coal, semi-coking coal and coking coal) into particle size fractions and then into particle density fractions was done and then the following parameters were measured for each particle size-density fraction: combustion heat, ash contents, sulfur contents, volatile parts contents, analytic moisture. In this way a 7-dimensional vector of data was created. Using methods of factor analysis the important features of coal were selected, which decide about their membership to individual types. To evaluate the appropriateness of the applied method the Bartlett’s sphericity test as well coefficient of Kaiser-Mayer-Olkin (KMO) were used. To select important factors the Kaiser criterion and Cattell’s scree test were used. The obtained results were compared with the results obtained in previous works by means of observation tunnels method. The results showed which particular features are crucial to define the type of coal what is also important to select appropriate method of its enrichment.INTRODUCTION Coal extracted from the mine is often a mixture of coals of various quality originating, for example, from various coal layers. One of the most important issues is to determine its quality, what means to verify if it fulfills certain requirements. Usually, such parameters as combustion heat, ash contents, sulfur contents, volatile parts contents and analytic moisture decide what the coal quality is (Drzymala, 2009). Such investigations are expensive and time consuming. That is why it seems to be important to determine the mutual connections and interactions between them what would make possible to reduce the amount of the necessary parameters. This issue was already investigated with successes in several works [Jamróz and Niedoba, 2013; 2014; Niedoba, 2015]. This work is another approach to this problem. Here, the investigation of possible reduction of researched parameters was done on the basis of the factor analysis. The obtained results confirm the earlier observations."

Jan 1, 2018

In this paper High Pressure Grinding Rolls(HPGR) was utilized to pretreat CVRD southern specular hematite for enhancing the pelletization of the refractory hematite. The process parameters of HPGR, balling and firing were optimized, and the mechanism of HPGR was demonstrated by determining the surface activity by means of Blaine specific surface area tester, laser size analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM),X-ray diffraction (XRD), micro calorimeter and pelletability index. It is shown that the pelletization of the refractory hematite was greatly improved. The drop strength of green balls increases from 3.4 times to 13.6 times from 0.5m height while the bentonite dosage decreases from 2.2% to 1.3%.The compressive strength of roasted pellets also reaches 2500N/pellet. The mechanism of the pretreatment of CVRD southern specular hematite concentrates by HPGR is revealed that the surface activity is improved by an increases in specific surface area and the amount of micron size fractions, and higher lattice deformation and defects due to the fractures occurring inside particles during static pressure comminution, resulting in more wetting enthalpy, higher pelletability index and good property of roasting.

Jan 1, 2014

By S. H. He

This paper focuses on the influence of pulp oxygen content on the separation of pentlandite and pyrrhotite contained in two different process streams in the Clarabelle Mill, operated by VALE INCO. The two process streams are (i) the scavenger cleaner feed, the product of regrinding the thickened, scavenged concentrate and the B cleaned tail produced from treating the non-magnetic fraction of the milled run of mine ore, and (ii) the magnetic concentrate which is the magnetic fraction of the milled run of mine ore. In the Clarabelle Mill, sulphite (SO32-) and TETA (triethylenete-tramine) are together used to selectively depress pyrrhotite from pentlandite. These depressants pre-ferentially decompose collector and/or sulphur enriched species at the pyrrhotite surface, an appar-ently essential mechanism in pyrrhotite depression from the scavenger cleaner feed stream. Selectivity in depression may originate from differences in the electrochemical rest potential of pyrrhotite and pentlandite. As both minerals are susceptible to oxidation, aeration in conditioning and flotation plays a key role in selective flotation. Important differences in the flotation behavior of pentlandite and pyrrhotite from the magnetic concentrate and the scavenger cleaner streams are highlighted in

Jan 1, 2014

By Saeed Farrokhpay

It is known that the grinding condition has a major effect on the beneficiation characteristics of the minerals in subsequent processing, in particular, flotation. In the flotation process, particles surface and their condition can significantly influence collector adsorption and flotation performance. For example, particle shape and its surface roughness occurred during grinding may influence flotation characteristics of a specific ore. In fact, adsorption of different cationic and anionic species on mineral surfaces can be varied depending on the selected comminution procedure. The flotation performance of sulphide minerals can be detrimentally affected by the surface oxidation. The amount of surface oxidation may reduce the hydrophobicity of the mineral and makes adsorption of collectors less selective. Improved liberation may generally result in improved flotation recovery. However, this may result in finer grinding and slimes, and consequently, reduce the overall flotation recovery. This paper discusses the effect of wet and dry grinding on copper flotation of a complex Cu-Pb-Zn ore. Industrially, wet grinding is preferred due to its higher energy efficiency and owing to downstream processing requirements. In this study, series of flotation tests were conducted,and surface analysis (XPS and ToFSIMS) were performed after wet or dry grinding at two different P80 values. Mineralogical study was also conducted to investigate the liberation of valuable minerals after grinding. A higher copper flotation recovery was found for wet grinding. However, the copper recovery was increased by further grinding in both conditions (wet and dry). The results showed a higher collector adsorption on copper mineral surfaces after wet grinding. The surface analysis also revealed that the ore is slightly more oxidized after dry grinding probably due to higher temperature during dry grinding.

Sep 1, 2012

By Z. F. Dai

The Thompson Nickel Belt, located in Northern Manitoba, Canada, contains more than 400 million tonnes of ultramafic low-grade nickel mineralization in 9 deposits. One of these, the Pipe deposit, was mined between 1971 and 1983 producing a Ni concentrate of 9% to 11% grade at 73% recovery. The operation was terminated because the poor recovery, low Ni grade and high MgO con-tent of the concentrate made processing this ore uneconomical at the metal prices prevailing at that time. Vale Inco is now re-evaluating these deposits with the intent of providing a new source of concentrate for its Thompson integrated processing facility. It is known that serpentine slimes coating on the sulphide surfaces are responsible for the poor metallurgy. Various desliming methods were tested including settling, elutriating, tabling and hydrocycloning. Hydrocycloning has proven to be the most effective means of desliming. With a feed assaying 0.70% Ni and 33% MgO, a rougher flotation concentrate assaying 22.7% Ni and 4.8% MgO was produced at a Ni recovery of 62.5% (relative to the feed to grinding), with no utilization of slimes dispersants. Another 16.6% Ni recovery was achieved in scavenger flotation resulting in a total Ni recovery of 79.1%. Batch flotation tests using various flowsheet configurations to optimize the grinding, desliming, reagentizing and flotation conditions are in progress.

Jan 1, 2014

Calcium carbonate has three polymorphs: calcite, aragonite, and vaterite. Needlelike aragonite CaCO3 with a high ratio of length to diameter (aspect ratio) is widely used in plastics, rubber and ceramics as a filler and in pigments and paints as a carrier. This paper investigated the influence of H3PO4 dosage, reaction temperature, CO2 flow rate, and initial Ca(OH)2 concentration on formation of needlelike aragonite CaCO3. It was found that the presence of H3PO4 in Ca(OH)2 suspension resulted in rapid formation of (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) crystal nuclei, which facilitated nucleation and growth of aragonite CaCO3 on the formed (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) crystal surfaces. The results revealed that H3PO4 addition of P/Ca of 0. 2~0. 3, high temperature of 75~85 °C, low CO2 flow rate and initial Ca(OH)2 solid concentration of 1. 5 %~5. 6 % are beneficial to formation of aragonite. Well crystallized needlelike aragonite CaCO3 whiskers with length > 20 µm and aspect ratio > 15 were directly synthesized.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Muhammad, A. Abdelaal, M. EL Salmawy

"Energy is vital for economic growth and sustainable development. Greater efforts are being devoted to developing unconventional energy resources such as oil shale as an alternative promising source of oil or solid fuel supplement. The main object of this contribution is to determine the upgrade potential of El-Nakheil oil shale using froth flotation. Samples were prepared by comminution followed by sieving into different size fractions. The flotation behavior of the material and extent of cleaning was studied with respect to nonionic and ionic collectors of anionic and cationic types. It was found that the organic rich portions could not be rendered sufficiently hydrophobic by the used collectors and selectivity towards surfactant was very low."

Jan 1, 2014

By Y. Lin

It is difficult to remove arsenic and bismuth from antimony in the process of crude electro refining. The electro refining of antimony has been studied using ammonium fluoride-antimony sulphate electrolyte system. The Influence of temperature, current density and additives on arsenic and bismuth removal from crude antimony has been investigated in this paper. Optimum process parameters, namely, temperature of 25?, current density of 400A/m2, distance between anode and cathode of 50mm, electrolytic period of 24 hours, oxalic acid dosage of 10g/L and complexon III dosage of 0.2 g/L have been ascertained.

Jan 1, 2014

By Ljudmil S. Grigorov, Eric Forssberg, Hanumantha Rao Kota, Robert J. Pugh, Lidia B. Alexandrova

"We have used the microscopic thin balance developed by Scheludko at al. (1970) technique to study the stability and interactions within the thin film between the silica surface and air bubble with (i) a long chain C10 amine and (ii) a cationic/anionic surfactant systems consisting of mixtures of a long straight C10 chain amine with long straight chain C8, C10 and C12 sulfonates. It was found that the mixed surfactants caused lower contact angles, lower rates of the thin aqueous film rupture and longer film lifetime, compared to the pure amine system.This behavior was explained by the initial strong adsorption of positively charged interfacial complexes from the mixed surfactant system at the air/solution interface followed by adsorption at the silica interface. It was also shown that the chain length compatibility between the anionic and cationic surfactants controls the strength of the interfacial complex, determining an inhibition in the thin film rupture and dewetting of the film. The rupture mechanism was explained by an earlier established heterocoagulation mechanism between the positively charged air/solution interface and the solution/silica interface which remained negatively charged. The formation of the interfacial complex at the air/solution interface was confirmed by using surface tension data."

Jan 1, 2003

By Y. S. Sun, P. Gao

"In this investigation, a pilot-scale suspension magnetization roasting reactor was introduced and used to enhance magnetic properties of an iron ore. Consequently, the effects of roasting temperature, reducing gas CO flow rate and fluidizing gas N2 flow rate on the magnetization roasting performance were investigated. The results indicate that the hematite and siderite are almost completely converted into magnetite by a gas mixture of 3.5 Nm3/h CO and 2 Nm3/h N2 at roasting temperature of 520 °C. Under the optimized conditions, the magnetic iron concentrate with an iron grade of 60.18% and iron recovery of 90.17% was achieved. The XRD and Fe mineral phase analyses revealed that most of the hematite and siderite were converted to magnetite, and the magnetic properties were greatly enhanced. INTRODUCTION The steel and iron industry in China has rapidly developed in recent years requiring a large quantity of iron ores. Low-grade and complex iron ores are currently the overwhelmingly dominant mineral resource for iron in China. Therefore, China depends on imported iron ore resources heavily, resulting in an increase in the production costs of iron-making and steel-making[1-3]. Using domestic resources to produce a steady supply of high-quality iron ores is an important step toward the sustainable development of the steel and iron industry[4-5]. The iron ore from Jiuquan iron and steel company is abundant and recognized as typically complex iron ore resources in China. Magnetization roasting followed by low-intensity magnetic separation has been proven as the most feasible methods to upgrade refractory iron ore[6-10]. In present research, an innovative roasting technology, namely suspension magnetization roasting, was developed and applied to recover iron from a typical refractory iron ore. Suspension magnetization roasting technique and equipment developed by Prof. Yuexin Han’s Group at Northeastern University (NEU) is an effective way for the utilization of refractory iron ore. The advent of suspension magnetization roasting will, in China and even globally, produce a significant technological revolution in the field of iron ore beneficiation. Based on the previous works, this paper mainly described experiments on the separation and recovery of iron from a complex refractory iron ore by means of suspension magnetizing roasting and low-intensity magnetic separation processes. The purpose of the research is providing a new technology for effective utilization of refractory iron ore. Process parameters that affected the separation and recovery rate of iron were conducted and optimized, and the reaction process was analyzed by XRD and Fe mineral phase analysis."

Jan 1, 2018

By N. Tsoni

The separation and recovery of fine and ultra-fine particles during the processing of mineral commodities by conventional separation methods is difficult and inefficient. This is due to the problems posed by the very small size of the mineral particles. The fine and ultra-fine mineral particles are either generated during size reduction processes or are necessitated by liberation size. This problem is expected to deteriorate, as deposits of even lower grade are processed. The inefficiency of the conventional separation methods with regards to the processing of very fine particles leads to the loss of considerable quantities of mineral commodities to the tailings. Novel methods and techniques as well combinations of known methods have been tested over the years. Among them, selective aggregation, along or in combination with flotation, has been given much attention. This study deals with the application of hydrophobic agglomeration as a separation method for very fine particles. The selected mineral system is magnesite/quartz, due to its sensitivity to physi-cochemical separation methods. The aim was the selective agglomeration of magnesite using sodium oleate. Tests on single minerals revealed that separation seems feasible and efficient. The parameters examined were: pH, quantity of sodium oleate, conditioning time, and, finally, settling time. Tests carried out on artificial mixtures of the two minerals, under various proportions, confirmed the results obtained from single mineral tests but they were slightly inferior. Finally, hydrophobic ag-glomeration tests were carried out on single and artificial mixtures of minerals using sodium oleate and petroleum as reagents. The results show that the addition of petroleum improves the results. In conclusion, hydrophobic agglomeration can be applied successfully even for fine particles of difficult-to-be-separated systems such as magnesite and quartz.

Jan 1, 2014

By V. Sovmen

The gold-ore Olympiada deposit is located within the Yenissei range (Krasnoyarsk Region, Russia). Primary sulphides ores are metasomatic changed rocks, mica-calcite-quartz structure with impurity amphiboles, chlorites, carbon, the rare thin grains of sulfides (up to 3%~5%) and native gold. The structures of ores are fine-grained, prevailing texture of ores - interspersed, vein-interspersed, band-interspersed, veinlet. The most important minerals in the deposit are: gold, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, antimonite, Sb-sulphosalt, quartz, muscovite, calcite, siderite, titanium minerals, chlorite and minor sulfides like chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, etc. A common problem in mineralogical studies applied to mineral processing (concentration, cyanidation, etc.) is the characterization of gold in ores and technological products. This paper discusses the behavior of minerals during technological process at operating factory in Olympiada Mine and gold distribution in the ores and products. For the mineralogical characterization of minerals ? combination of analytical techniques was used. Gold is encountered in the primary ores as free grains among rocks, growth with sulfides and nonmetallic minerals, inclusions in sulfides, sulphosalt, and nonmetallic minerals. The gold-sulphide ores of Olympiada deposit can be quite complicated for enrichment. With the purpose to increase the extraction of metal from concentrates by liberating the dispersed gold, forming inclusions in sul-fides, there is used technology of biooxidation of flotation concentrates in Olympiada Mine. Gold and the basic ore-forming minerals in the ores feed, sulphidic concentrates, biocakes, tailings of concentrates of flotation and products of hydrometallurgical leaching have been studied in the mineralogical research. During researches it is established that pyrrhotite was completely oxidized while arsenopyrite was oxidized almost completely in the bacterial oxidation process. Pyrite and antimony minerals behave similarly and were oxidized only partially. The main oxyhydroxides in the bacterial oxida-tion process are goethite, limonite and jarosite. The results of mineralogical researches showed reasons of losses of gold during hydrometallurgical enrichment.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Mainza, H. Hill, L. S. Bbosa

"Impact breakage is the most elementary size reduction mechanism in comminution devices. In comminution research, characterization of breakage is primarily concerned with the energy expended to cause it. The main challenges of this approach have been quantifying the actual energy requirements of impact breakage and developing mechanistic models to accurately describe the process. For engineering load analysis, fracture is characterized in terms of strengths such as yield stress and ultimate tensile stress, which govern the maximum loads specific materials can be subjected to before irreversible inelastic deformation and subsequently complete fracture occur. With this approach, the main challenge has been to elucidate the underlying mechanism, in the means that the load causes weaknesses in the material microstructure to act as sites for stress concentrations, leading to crack initiation, propagation and eventual failure. Studies dedicated to investigating particle fracture under impact loading have led to the development of several devices for conducting breakage characterization tests. These devices include the drop weight tester, split Hopkinson pressure bar, rotary breakage tester and the short impact load cell. All these have different particle loading and breakage methods, and thus can yield distinct information which can be compiled together to study a material and the nature of breakage. This work analyses the single impact breakage data obtained across the listed devices. A homogenous ore commonly known as blue stone is used for all breakage tests. The work is conducted using standard procedures specific to each device as closely as possible. Drop weight and rotary breakage tests were used to obtain hardness parameters based on an existing t10 breakage model, while split Hopkinson pressure bar and short impact load cell measurements provided properties based on conventional engineering load analysis. The results were used to highlight the significance of the loading geometry, impact mechanism and impulse on the extent of breakage."

Jan 1, 2018