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By Charles Will Wright

DESPITE the war, the First Pan American Mining Congress, held in Santiago, Chile, Jan. 15-23, was attended by about 300 persons including the official delegates from sixteen of the American republics. The United States delegation consisted of Elmer Pehrson, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines; D. F. Hewett, of the U. S. Geological Survey; William H. Hobbs, of the Carnegie Foundation; and C. W. Wright, delegate of the Board of Economic Warfare and of the A.I.M.E. Mr. Wright was elected to head the delegation. Among the other members were Edward Steidle, of Pennsylvania State College and also an official A.I.M.E. delegate; John Huttl, of Engineering and Mining Journal; W. 0. Vanderburg, foreign mineral specialist from Lima, Peru; O. B. Hundley, of the American Cyanamid Co.; Horace Graham, of the Anglo-Chilean Nitrate Co.; and several officials and engineers from the Anaconda, Kennecott, and Bethlehem Steel companies' mines in Chile.

Jan 1, 1942

By Raymond Edmundson

BARITE probably was first mined in the United States in 1845, when a small deposit was operated in Prince William County, Virginia1. The next state to produce barite was Missouri, and according to Weigel2, mining began about 1860. Virginia was the leading producer during the early period of barite mining, but by 1893, Missouri was producing almost an equal amount3. From this date, Virginia, although not the leading producer, furnished large quantities of crude barite until oper-ations gradually declined about 1907. Since 1910, there has been only one producer in Virginia. It is not known when barite was discovered in each of the Virginia areas (Fig. 1), but it is reliably reported that mining on a commercial scale began in Campbell-Pittsylvania counties about 1874; Smyth County in 1877; and in the Russell-Tazewell area about 1890. Barite is widely distributed in Virginia, occurring in nineteen counties. The localities that contain material of some economic value have been grouped into six areas (Fig. 1), each designated by the county or counties in which the barite is found. As many of the smaller areas show a similarity in geologic occurrence, they will be considered in this paper as two major groups; namely, Appalachian Valley and Piedmont Province. The first group, which includes the barite deposits of Russell, Tazewell, Smyth, Botetourt and Roanoke counties, lies northwest of the Blue Ridge and its foothills and southeast of the Appalachian plateaus. The other group includes deposits from the Blue Ridge on the west to the western margin of the Coastal Plain, in Campbell, Pittsylvania, Bedford, Grayson, and Fauquier counties.

Jan 1, 1936

By John F. Wiggert

DURING the early years of Homestake operations, shaft signaling from the cage tenders to the hoisting engineers was done by mechanical means. Small steel cables or jointed steel rods were suspended in the shaft compartments and counterbalanced with weights or springs. These cables or rod strings were connected to the mechanically operated gongs at the engineers' stations by means of bell cranks and steel wires. The system was simple and economical and served the purpose well until the mine reached a depth of 1000 ft., then the system became slow and cumbersome and required a considerable amount of muscular effort to operate it with much speed, because of the inertia of the heavy moving parts. The mechanical signaling was superseded by a simple electrical system consisting of a single pair of wires in steel conduit for each shaft compartment. In the shaft at each station a pull switch was connected to the wires. The switches were operated by means of bell cords, which extended from station to station. This electrical system was a great improvement over the mechanical one, but it had one serious drawback, which also applied to the older system; namely, the engineer did not know where a signal originated. Later on this signaling was improved to overcome this drawback, and to give the engineer a positive indication of a signal's origin. In this system a separate return wire from each pull switch is carried to an annunciator at the engineer's station, where it indicates the signal's origin. While the annunciator system used by Homestake is very safe and reliable, it has the inherent drawback of all wire-connected systems in that it is impossible to send a signal from a moving cage. A number of years ago Homestake became interested in the possibility of using some sort of radio transmission for shaft signaling. The company did much experimental work with purely radio signal transmission, but no practical way was discovered to use radio transmission in a mine shaft for signaling to or from a cage. Therefore, all efforts were directed to devising a practical way of using the hoisting rope as part of the circuit. It was realized that the return circuit from the rope would need to be through electrostatic coupling between the cage and the earth or ground sides of the shaft, because the guides would not always be wet enough to make possible good electrical contact between the cage and earth, therefore relatively high-frequency alternating current was chosen as the medium of transmission. Soon a practical system was developed for transmitting an electric current from a moving cage over an electric circuit of which the hoisting rope was a part. A high-frequency electric current is used as a carrier to transmit the signals or mes-

Jan 1, 1941

By J. L. Rodda, R. L. Wilcox, E. C. Truesdale

In recent years various problems in connection with research work on the preparation and properties of zinc-base alloys have required reliable information concerning the constitution of the zinc-rich portion of the iron-zinc equilibrium diagram. On numerous occasions rather positive indications were obtained that, for example, the solubility of iron in zinc was incorrectly represented on the current equilibrium diagrams. A careful study of all the available literature relating to the iron-zinc system led to the conclusion that much of the early work was unsatisfactory as measured by present standards of experimental accuracy, and as a result it was decided to redetermine the location of the liquidus curve and of adjacent portions of the diagram. Part I of this paper comprises a description of the experimental methods and a summary of the results by means of which the zinc-rich end of- the iron-zinc diagram has been revised in the following ways: 1. Measurements of the solubility of iron in liquid zinc by several different sampling methods, leading to a relocation of the liquidus curve. 2. Microscopic, conductivity, and X-ray studies of the solid solubility of iron in zinc, which, together with thermal analyses, have resulted in new values for the solid solubility and the eutectic temperature and composition. 3. Heating and cooling curves, obtained by a refined differential method, leading to new locations for the two peritectic horizontals. In Part I1 of the paper the attempt is made to review all of the published work having a bearing on the constitution of the iron-zinc system, and to correlate the present results, and some recently published data involving the use of X-ray technique, with the earlier work, much of which was done from 25 to 30 years ago.

Jan 1, 1936

Magazine Advertising $ 62,564 83 Magazine Sales 3,591 44 Total 66,156 27 Dues, Arrears 7,032 88 Dues, Current 96,839 74 Dues, New Members 6,525 00 Dues, in advance 1,907 02 Initiation Fees 7,584 00 Sale of Transactions 3,909 03 Sale of Binding .. 7,845 05 Sale of Special Editions 338 20 Sale of Year Book 76 20 Sale of Pamphlets 1,189 06 Sale of Authors' Reprints 867 54 Miscellaneous Receipts 62 93 Interest on Bank Balances 1,712 89 Interest on General Reserve Fund 337 50 Interest on Life Membership Fund 557 84 Interest on James Douglas Library Fund 5,491 89 Total Receipts $208,433 04

Jan 1, 1923

[Estimated Receipts Dues: Arrears $ 3,500.00 Current 108,115.00 New Members 11,937.00 In Advance 1,763.00 $125,315.00 Initiation Fees 7,250.00 Initiation Fees-Additional if increased to $20.00 7,250.00 Sale of Transactions....3,000.00 Sale of Binding 7,092.00 Sale of Magazine 2,913.00 Sale of Pamphlets 70.00 Sale of Indexes and Emmons Vols 313.00 Sale of Pyrometry 900.00 Sale of Raymond Vol 100.00 Interest received on Bank Balance 500.00 Interest received on Life Memberships 500.00 Advertising-Gross 27,000.00 Voluntary Subscriptions-Estimated 16,000.00 Income from James Douglas Fund 5,000.00 Total $203,503.00] [ ]

Jan 1, 1925

Estimated Receipts Dues Arrears $ 3,500 00 Current 108,115 00 New Members - 11,937 00 In Advance 1,763 00 $125,315 00 Initiation Fees - 7,250 00 Initiation Fees-Additional if increased to $20 00 7,250 00 Sale of Transactions 3,000 00 Sale of Binding 7,092 00 Sale of Magazine 2,913 00 Sale of Pamphlets 370 00 Sale of Indexes and Emmons Vols 313 00 Sale of Pyrometry 900 00 Sale of Raymond Vol 100 00 Interest received on Bank Balance . 500 00 Interest received on Life Memberships 500 00 Advertising-Gross 27,000 00 Voluntary Subscriptions-Estimated 16,000 00 Income from James Douglas Fund 5,000 00 Total $203,503 00

Jan 1, 1923

By J. T. Burwell

THE crystal orientation in silicon iron that has been given a particular treatment described by Goss,1 has been studied by Goss, by Bozorth2 and by Sixtus,3 but their results do not agree and are almost entirely qualita-tive. The following pages give a description of the orientation of the crystals in the material as determined by means of X-rays and expressed graphically in a pole figure. The treatment consists of hot-rolling the material into strip and then giving it two cycles of cold reduction followed by recrystallization. This produces remarkably good properties in the rolling direction, the product having a maximum permeability in this direction of more than 25,000 and a permeability at 16,000 Gauss of more than 2200, It is now generally agreed that Goss's original conclusion' that the crystals in the final product are randomly oriented was incorrect, since Bozorth2 and Sixtus,3 using different methods, have shown that there is a decided preference in orientation. Those writers, however, expressed their results only in terms of one or more ideal orientations with deviations therefrom.

Jan 1, 1940

By C. R. Boyd

In 1874 I received an appointment in the corps organized by Col. William P. Craighill, U. S. Engineers, to survey the New or Upper Kanawha river for the purpose of ascertaining the practicability and

Jan 1, 1895

By J. Greenspan

The anisotropy of fracture and slip, that is, the brittleness and ductility of the beryllium single crystal, is characteristic also of po1ycrystalline beryllium in which the grains are oriented in a preferred manner. Beryllium with grain orientations resulting from hot working either unidirectionally or bidirectionally is ductile or brittle in directions given by the anisotropy and orientation of the grains. Textures developed from various hot-working sequences are given, and tensile results are correlated with textures. Not only texture, but fine grain size is necessary for obtaining high tensile elongation. Ultimate tensile strength and elongation are both correlated with grain diameter. Of particular interest is the case in which unusually high tensile elongations of 30 to 40 pct are obtained when basal planes are oriented to carry THE beryllium crystal (of nominal purity) is probably unique among metals with respect to its unusually acute anisotropy of slip and fracture. While extensive slip can occur on the system (1010) [ll20] starting at about 19,000 psi, the (0001) plane is particularly vulnerable to fracture at 4500 psi or less. Fracture occurs also on the (11zo) plane at about 26,000 psi.1"3 Further, there seems to be no other slip System which contributes significantly to

Jan 1, 1960

Industrial Preparedness To Cooperate with the U S War Department General Committee ARTHUR S DWIGHT, Chairman H FOSTER BAIN C K LEITH J EDWARD SPURR H. S MULLIKEN Alternate GEORGE OTIS SMITH POPE YEATMAN

Jan 1, 1923

By John H. Schissler

INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY Complex copper-lead-zinc ore is mined from underground workings high in the Western Cordillera of the Andes mountains about 100 km in a stralght line north of the city of Arequipa in southern Peru. The Madrigal mine is situated in a steep-walled canyon into which the six operating levels "daylight". Production is from cut-and-fill stopes currently producing approximately 740 dry metric tons per day. The Santa Rosa vein, the most important producer in the district, outcrops for a distance of about 4 km, bearing N 75º W and dipping about 70º NE. In places the vein splits into two or three branches; widths of each vary between 1 and 4 m and total mineralized widths of up to over 8 m occur. Principal ore minerals are chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite. Ore reserve grades for the Madrigal mine average about 1.45% Cu, 2.6% Pb and 5.0% Zn, 2.9 ozAg per metric ton. [Compania] Minera del Madrigal is a California limited partnership; the general partner and operator is [Compania] Madrigal, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Homestake Mining Company. HISTORY Shallow workings found on the Santa Rosa vein were probably made by the Spaniards during colonial times in their search for

Jan 1, 1977

By R. P. Abendroth

This study is concerned with the kinetics of selective oxidation of chromium in a commercial Fe-Cr-Ni alloy. Selective oxidation of chromium in this alloy, by use of a low oxygen-potential atmosphere, leads to the formation of a compact, protective layer of Cr2O3. This layer serves to protect this alloy from gross scaling when it is subsequently exposed to severe oxidizing conditions at high temperature. The interaction of low oxygen-potential atmospheres close to equilibrium with Fe-Cr and Ni-Cr alloys has been studied by others."' These studies werk concerned with the surface-structure variations under slightly oxidizing conditions. NO detailed study was made of the oxide scale formation kinetics, however. The alloy samples were cut from 0.012-in.-thick sheet, with an apparent surface area of 7.1 sq cm. These sheet samples were abraded through 4/0 metallographic paper, and washed in alcohol and acetone. The analysis of the sheet alloy is (in weight percent): 42 pct Ni, 5.5 pct Cr, 0.09 pct C, 0.18 pct Al, 0.36 pct Si, 0.26 pct Mn, balance Fe. The weight gain vs time data were obtained with a 2-g capacity fused-silica spring—cathetometer system. The spring deflection was optically magnified ten times before being read by the cathetometer. A sensitivity of about 0.01 mg was attainable. The spring was enclosed in a water jacket maintained at 60°C to minimize the effect of temperature changes. The sample was suspended from the spring with a fused-silica hangdown and was positioned in the thermal center of a mullite furnace tube. Sample temperature was read with the aid of a thermocouple placed outside the mullite tube and an inside vs outside temperature calibration. Temperature change during the course of a run was ±0.25°C, with a temperature gradient of less than l.O°C over the length of the sample. Total temperature uncertainty was no more than ±3.0°C. Alignment difficulties between the hangdown and radiation shields in the furnace tube required that the sample be positioned in the furnace when cold, and heated with the furnace until the temperature stabilized at the desired point. This required 5 to 6 hr, and was carried out in Matheson ultrahigh-purity hydrogen. Oxidation was started, after evacuation, by introducing a hydrogen-water vapor mixture, obtained by saturating hydrogen with water vapor at 31.00o ± 0.02oC. Oxidation was continued for 90 min. Gas flow was 300 ml per min during heat up and oxidation. Since only several milligrams of oxide are formed on each sample, chemical analysis of the oxide is difficult. A representative analysis is: 80 pct Cr2O3, 5 pct Fe2O3, 3 pct Al2O3, 4 pct MnO, 7 pct SiO2, 1 pct or less NiO. X-ray diffraction analysis of the oxide as formed on the alloy gives rhombohedra1 Cr2O3, and barely distinguishable amounts of a cubic spinel phase, and possibly AlZOs and SO2. The identification of these latter two compounds is by no means certain. The spinel phase could be based on iron or manganese as these elements are present in significant amounts in the oxide. The results of the kinetic studies using 31°C dew-point hydrogen-water vapor mixtures were found to conform to a parabolic rate law. In many cases the parabolic plot consisted of two intersecting straight lines, defining an early and a late rate for a particular run, and in the other cases the parabolic plot consisted of one straight line for the entire run. The slopes of the various straight lines were determined by the method of least squares. Reproducibility of the data was good enough for multiple runs at the same temperature such that the value given for the rate constant is the average for two or more closely similar values, rather than widely varying values of the rate, where more than one determination is indicated in Table I. The exhibition of only one or of two rate constants during a run can happen at the same temperature. Thus, Table I shows that at 11'74°C a single rate constant was obtained from one sample, while other samples oxidized at the same temperature gave an early and a late rate constant. It should be noted that the single rate constant corresponds very closely with the early rate constant. This is also true at 1153°C. The time at which the late rate started to appear was variable, usually occurring 20 to 40 min after oxidation had started.

Jan 1, 1964

By Joseph M. Locke

The discovery of this asphaltum was made by S. H. Gilson, of Salt Lake, and since then the material has borne the local name of Gilsonite. So far as I have been able to ascertain, however, the first published notice of this discovery was made by Prof. W. P. Blake in the Engineering arid Mining Journal, of December 26, 1885, where he names the new mineral Uintahite, from the place of its discovery, the Uintah Mountains in eastern Utah. The priority of publication and the geographical fitness of the name will probably secure its acceptance by mineralogists.* The following is Prof. Blake's article. In the month of September last, a sample of peculiar asphalt was received for examination, and recently when in Provo, Utah, I had the opportunity of seeing a considerable quantity brought in from the Uintah Mountains. It is obtained in masses several inches in diameter, and apparently free from mechanically disseminated impurities. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture, is very brittle, and is readily reduced to powder in a mortar. Hardness, 2 to 25. Gravity, 1.065 to 1.070. Color, black, brilliant, and lustrous; streak and powder, a rich brown. It is a non-conductor of electricity, and is electrically excited by friction.

Jan 1, 1888

By G. A. Swanquist, E. M. Morales

INTRODUCTION The idea of water management and control at the Church Rock Mill operations began to take shape in February 1979. At that time, we were already investigating the feasibility of decreasing the fresh water requirements so that the solids would become the limiting factor in tailings impoundment utilization. The area for solution evaporation could be kept at a fraction of the normal requirements under the standard process of full water usage. The Church Rock Mill is an acid leach circuit followed by solids/liquid separation with thickeners in counter current decantation, and solvent extraction. Following the normal design of acid leach circuits, reuse of tailings solution was not incorporated in the original mill process design. INITIAL WATER CONTROL INVESTIGATIONS The investigations to decrease the fresh water requirements centered around modifying the grinding circuit from the present semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill in closed circuit with hydrocyclones, to open circuit grinding with a rod mill. The open circuit grinding with the SAG mill and rod mill in series had the potential of decreasing the water requirements for grinding and leach dilution by approximately 50% or 1.4 m3/min (300 gpm). The grinding pulp density would be maintained at 70 to 72% solids, and the leach dilution to 50% solids would be accomplished with acid tailings liquor recycle. In such a grinding circuit arrangement, the SAG mill would provide the primary or coarse grind, and the rod mill would be used for the fine grind. By the SAG mill and rod mill series grinding method of water control and other secondary water controls in various places downstream from the grinding circuit, the required necessary evaporation area was estimated at 120 acres of liquid surface. A second method of water control at grinding was investigated. A two-stage cyclone classification circuit appeared to have a good potential of achieving the same water reduction at a much lower capital and operating cost. However, in retrospect, this would not have been a viable method since a high slime recycle load would have been established hindering classification. The use of reagents to neutralize the acid tailings solution was not considered seriously at that time, since it would have materially increased operating costs, although it would have also allowed more tailings solution recycle and consequently, less fresh water usage. However, with the tailings solution deposition area available at that time, it was not then necessary to incur the high cost of neutralization. The control expected by the series grinding of semiautogenous and rod mills would have been sufficient to maintain a water consumption/evaporation equilibrium well in line with the available land area. IMPLEMENTATION OF NEUTRALIZATION OPERATIONS During the summer of 1979, the UNC Church Rock Mill experienced a tailings dam breach which resulted in a prolonged mill shutdown. Upon resumption of operations at the end of October 1979, tailings deposition was restricted to a small portion of the tailings impoundment area. Figure 1 shows the general tailings area and the limits of the present deposition area in the central part including the borrow pits. These borrow pits had been excavated to provide materials for tailings dam construction. Immediately after resumption of operations, it became evident that it would be necessary to control the quantity of liquid to be evaporated because of the small confined area available for tailings solution deposition and to maximize the deposition time in the tailings area. The water control required had to be exercised on a large scale, and to be in operation as quickly as possible. An obvious solution was to reuse the tailings liquor in mill process. Immediate steps were taken to install the necessary equipment for tailings neutralization on an interim basis. Anhydrous ammonia was selected as the primary neutralization reagent since it was the quickest system that could be placed in operation. Previous laboratory tests indicated fair results with ammonia neutralization. Such a system required a minimum of installed equipment and handling. INITIAL NEUTRALIZATION OPERATIONS Actual neutralization operations began on November 26, 1979. The raffinate solution which normally would have been discarded was pumped to a 3.7 m (12ft) diam by 4.3 m (14ft) tank for reagent contact, see Figure 2. At this tank, anhydrous ammonia was added directly from the tanker trailers and controlled at pH 7.0 nominally. Agitation was provided by air sparging. The neutralized product formed a highly viscous slurry in the grinding circuit which resulted in pumping and cyclone classification problems.

Jan 1, 1982

By Harry A. Lipsitt, Douglas Y. Wang

A fatigue study in completely reversed axial tension-compression has been perforried on high-purity titanium and on three high-purity alloys of titanium. The alloys each contain approxi7nately 0.75 at. pct of a single interstitial element; carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, respectivley. The results corroborate a previously published theory which proposed that strain aging under alternating stress was responsible for the fatigue limit behavior of certain alloys. The present data indicate that in these alloys an increasing strain-talline aging effect under alternating stress is provided by oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, respectively. CURRENT research on the nature of the fatigue limit in metals suggests that the presence of a fatigue limit in metallic materials is a manifestation of strain aging that occurs under alternating stress.lm5 A comprehensive theoretical model based on the above hypothesis has been developed to explain the existence of a fatigue limit.' This model also provides increased insight into several other fatigue phenomena as under stressing, overstressing, and coaxing effects. The theory, as well, provides equal understanding for those cases where no real fatigue limit is observed. Briefly, this theory assumes that the S-N curve for a pure metal is a smooth function of the applied stress, and the effect of adding an element that is soluble (or forms a precipitate) in the pure metal is simply to shift the S-N curve to the right. If the added element confers the power to strain age, the result is a further shift of the S-N curve, this time upward and to the right. Since strain aging is not expected to be a strong function of stress, and since damage per cycle is known to be quite stress dependent, it is to be expected that there will be some limiting lower stress at which the strengthening due to strain aging will balance the damage due to crack propagation. This stress is the fatigue limit. The position of the fatigue-limit knee was thought to be a function of the magnitude of the strain-aging effect on both the finite and infinite life portions of the S-N curve. Although the strain aging hypothesis seems to be reasonably valid for bcc materials,2'6 it needed to be tested for both fcc and cph metals. This report is the first of a series concerning the fatigue-limit behavior of titanium with varying amounts of the interstitial solutes (C, N,, and 4) that are known to cause static strain aging in titanium. Yield-point effects have been reported for polycrys-talline high-purity titanium alloys containing either carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen.7'9 These effects were observed at testing temperatures in the range 100 to 300'. In addition yield-point and strain-aging effects have been reported for single crystals of titanium containing 0.1 wt pct C plus N.' These yield points were observed over a wide temperature range, but no room-temperature aging occurred. Aging at 180' was required to cause the return of the yield point. The magnitude of the yield phenomena in titanium containing interstitials is not expected to be as large as is observed in bcc metals because of several factors. Titanium has a very high chemical affinity for oxygen and nitrogen. The thermodynamic stability of solutions of oxygen or nitrogen in titanium is recognized. Lattice parameter measurements of titanium containing arbon, oxygen,1° or nitrogen" show that the "c" parameter is expanded more than the "a" parameter, but that up to about 2 wt pct this results in an insignificant change of the axial ratio 'c/a." Ehrlich" has shown that the sites occupied by interstitial atoms in titanium are spherically symmetrical and therefore a lattice expansion, at a constant c/a ratio, results in a simple dilation of the interstitial site. Such a dilation involving no shear has been shown to react only with edge components of dislocations.13 This causes only a weak pinning action. Shear stresses would be anticipated locally when only one of the two interstitial positions was occupied. The carbon atom will cause a symmetrical distortion of the lattice whereas the oxygen and nitrogen atoms have, in addition, the previously mentioned chemical affinity of titanium for these elements. These factors will result in a considerably smaller reduction of free energy upon the association of interstitial atoms with dislocations, and therefore a much weaker pinning than has been observed for the bcc metals. These considerations would lead to the hypothesis that of the interstitial elements considered here carbon would cause the strongest pinning effect in titanium where the amount of interstitial in solution is constant. This hypothesis will be borne out in the analysis of the present results.

Jan 1, 1962

By M. Bevis, A. F. Acton, P. C. Rowlands

Defor~nation twinning and transformation twinning modes most likely to be operative in Fe-Ni and Fe-Ni-C martensites have been determined using a new theory of the crystallography of deformation t~inning.~ This analysis shows that potentially important conventional and nonconventional twinning modes1 have been omitted in previous analyses. Discussion is given on the relevance of the predicted twinning modes to the lattice invariant shear associated with the martensite transformation in steels and to anomalous deformation twinning in Fe-Ni-C martensites. THE two most important criteria which appear to govern operative twinning modes in metallic structures1 are that the magnitude of the twinning shear should be small and that the twinning shear should restore the lattice or a multiple lattice in a twin orientation. The latter criterion ensures that the shuffle mechanism required to restore the structure in a twin orientation is simple. These criteria have been adhered to in the prediction of twinning modes2"6 in bcc and bct single-lattice structures with axial ratios in the range y = 1 to 1.09 as, for example, encountered in martensite occurring in steels. Refs. 2 and 3 in particular consider the martensite transformation in steels and the twinning modes in these cases relate to transformation twinning, and hence the lattice invariant shear associated with the martensite transformation. The list of twinning modes which can be compiled from these sources is incomplete and the ranges of magnitude of shear considered could be unrealistically small, particularly in the case of deformation twinning. The latter consideration is supported by the fact that twinning modes with magnitudes of shear large compared with the smallest shear consistent with a simple shuffle mechanism have been established in, for example, the single-lattice structure mercury7 and the multiple-lattice structure zirconium.&apos; In addition the anomalous deformation twins reported by Ftichrnan4 to occur in a range of Fe-Ni-C martensites still remain unexplained. It is clear that a comprehensive analysis of twinning modes likely to be operative in martensite In steels is required. The results of the application of a new theory of the crystallography of deformation twinningg to these structures are presented in this paper. The theory has been used to determine all shears which restore the lattice or a multiple lattice in a new orientation with magnitude of shear up to a required maximum. The orientation relationships between parent and twinned lattices are not restricted to the classical orientation relationships of reflection in the twin plane or a rotation of 180 deg about the shear direction. PREDICTED TWINNING MODES Twinning modes which restore all or one half of lattice points to their correct twin positions will be referred to as m = 1 and m = 2 modes, respectively. These modes are the most likely to describe operative modes in single lattice structures. The bcc m = 1 and m = 2 modes which have magnitudes of shear s in the range s < 2 and s < 1, respectively, have been given10 and are reproduced here in Tables I and 11. Detailed discussion of the crystallography of these modes and cubic modes in general will be discussed elsewhere (~evis and rocker, to be published). The four twinning elements Kl, &,ql,7)2 as well as the magnitude of shear s are given for each twinning mode, and the twinning modes are given in order of increasing shear. Two twinning modes are given in each row of the tables, the twinning mode Kl, Kz, ql, q2 and the reciprocal twinning mode with elements Kl = K,, Ki = Kl, q: = q2, and 17; = ql. The m = 1 and m = 2 twinning modes which describe twinning shears with small magnitudes of shear and simple shuffle mechanisms in bct crystals with -y = 1 to 1.09 are given in Tables I11 and IV, respectively. On increasing the symmetry of the tetragonal lattice to cubic, that is making y = 1, all modes listed in Tables 111 and IV must reduce to crystallographically equivalent variants of the modes given in Tables I and 11, respectively, or become twinning modes with both shear planes as symmetry planes in the cubic lattice and hence not considered in Tables I and 11. With the exception of this last type of mode only those tetragonal twinning modes which reduce to modes 1.1, 1.2, 2.1, and 2.2 of Tables I and I1 are considered in Tables 111 and IV. For values of y in the range -y = 1 to 1.09 the tetragonal modes and the corresponding cubic twinning modes have approximately the same magnitude of shear. The twinning modes listed in Tables 111 and IV are therefore by the criteria given above the most

Jan 1, 1969

By R. B. Woodworth

In the sinking of bore holes, there are but two fundamental operations —drilling and hoisting—which determine in the main the character of drilling mechanism and structures. There are endless ramifications, however, in the execution of these fundamental operations, according to the purposes for which the bore holes are drilled, their maintenance after completion, the protection and convenience of workmen, etc. The three main lines of use for bore holes are in mineral exploration, the sinking of water and salt wells, and the exploitation of pqtroleum and natural gas. This paper has to do more especially with the last. Here again there are many divergences. Wells may be drilled by either the percussive, the hydraulic, or the abrasive method. Finally, each of these methods, as applied by drillers of diverse nationalities, has followed somewhat different lines of development. The American system of cable-tool drilling has perhaps had the widest application; the hydraulic rotary is also in extensive use; but the Canadian system, the Galician system, and the Russian free-fall system all have their points of recognized merit and are preferred by operators accustomed to their use. These differences in drilling procedure, which rest ultimately on essential variations in geological conditions, are reflected in the drilling structures as well as in the drilling mechanism. The purpose of the present paper is to record those stages in the development of the application of steel to the construction of drilling mechanism and structures with which the writer has been intimately associated, and to contribute to the history of the art of drilling other data acquired in the course of his personal investigations. It is necessarily limited by reason of space to American practice, with especial reference, therefore, to the cable-tool system and the hydraulic rotary method of drilling wells for oil and gas.

Jan 1, 1916

By J. R. Linney

APPROXIMATELY 5,788,000 long tons of crude ore was produced by the Eastern magnetite industry in 1946, or a drop of 26 per cent compared -with 1945. Decrease in production -throughout the industry varied from :8 per cent for the mine with the lowest reduction to 49 per cent for the mine -with the highest reduction. At the Chateaugay mine, operated by :the Republic Steel Corp. at Lyon Mountain, N. Y., 426,900 long tons of crude ,ore was produced, yielding 129,500 long tons of concentrates or a reduction of 46 per cent compared with the previous year. Owing to a strike the mine was closed down from Jan. 21 to July 29. At the Mineville mines, also operated by Republic Steel, output was 755,000 long tons of crude ore or a reduction of 49 per cent compared with 1945. The yield from the crude ore production consisted of 51,500 long tons of lump ore and 380,000 long tons of concentrates. The Mineville plant did not operate from March 17 through July 28, on account of the strike. The Fisher Hill mine, which produced 93,000 long tons of crude ore, included in the above figures, has not operated since March 17, 1946.

Jan 1, 1947

THE Institute of Metals Division opened its series of meetings by a session* on lead, R. S. Dean be-ing in the chair and G. 0. Hiers acting as vice-chairman. A large and representative audience listened to the papers in the abstract and contributed an inter-esting and fruitful discussion. The main points of these papers and discussion are given below: In the absence of Carl E. Swartz, the summary and conclusions of his paper, "A Study of the Lead-Tin-Cadmium System with Reference to Their Use as Solders," were read. Swartz investigated a number of alloys in the lead-tin-cadmium system and prepared a diagram representing the solidification ranges of these alloys. He also made tensile strength tests of joints made with these alloys, and compared these with joints made with ordinary lead-tin solder. The tests showed solders containing cadmium were equally strong as the lead-tin series and that the cadmium alloys were suit-able in other respects for use as solders. In general, solders of the composition near to the ternary lead-tin-cadmium eutectic appeared to be the best for most soldering work although compositions widely differing are desirable for special purposes. The lead-tin-cad-mium solders are finding a market particularly in the fields requiring lower solidification temperatures than common solders. Mr. Darby opened the discussion and asked whether it was a fact that the lead-tin-cadmium solders were more useful than ordinary solders on galvanized and tin-plated sheet. C. Smith said he thought it to be a fact that galvanized sheet was more easily soldered by the lead-tin-cadmium solders than common lead-tin-solder. Continuing, Mr. Smith showed lantern slides of his own investigation of the thermal diagram and recommended the 70 per cent lead, 20 per cent cadmium, and 10 per cent tin for general employment. He thought the author did not differentiate between wetting and alloying and pointed out that wetting was more a ques-tion of the flux than the metal. In some cases a definite alloy was formed by soldering and in some no evidences of alloying were found. Illustrating the former case he showed slides and demonstrated that failures always took place longitudinal with the brittle compound alloy and transversely across the solder itself.

Jan 3, 1928