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By Barry Voight

The law [ ] where [ ] is a measurable quantity such as strain and A and cu are empirical constants, describes the behavior of materials in terminal stages of failure under conditions of approximately constant stress and temperature. Applicable to intact rock and rock masses, the relation may be extended to conditions of variable stress and cyclic stress, and may be used to predict time to failure. Applications in rock mechanics include slope and excavation stability and various topics in ground control.

Jan 1, 1989

By J. Willan

This paper addresses the problem of designing a destress blasting procedure to reduce the incidence of rockbursting in hard rock mines. A review is made of the developed theory and practice of destress blasting in rockburst-prone ground. Specific reference is made to a recent survey of past and current practice with particular reference to Ontario mining operations. The need is identified for a more scientific basis for destress blast design and monitoring. Reference to developments in blasting technology as well as rock mechanics are then made to support a proposed, integrated design procedure and research strategy.

Jan 1, 1984

By G. R. Corbett

The introduction of roof bolts to Phalen Colliery in the Sydney Coalfield, Nova Scotia (annual output of 2Mt) has been successfully implemented in maingate and tailgate entries over the last four years. Monitoring of the roof bolted areas continues to be an integral part of the quality control program as the results are utilized to maintain safety and to aid in long-term design strategies. Although all gateroads in the Phalen Colliery have converted to roof bolts as their primary means of support, the majority of intersections which intersect the main slopes remain supported by large steel structures. Several intersections within the Phalen Colliery were monitored as they were created by the mining process. A comparison is made between intersections supported with only traditional 6.4 to 6.7 m steel structure and intersections supported by 2.44 m fully resin encapsulated roof bolts in conjunction with 7.6 m fully cement grouted cable bolts. Detailed monitoring was conducted using CA NM ET's intrinsically safe sonic probe extensometer datalogger which has the ability to read up to sixteen probes simultaneously at programmed intervals. The density of the data from the datalogger has allowed a better understanding of the deformation of cable bolted intersections than was possible with manual monitoring. Test results have helped mine operators to design safer cable bolted intersections.

Jan 1, 1995

By Archie Richardson

The trona mines in the Green River Basin, commonly known as the "trona patch," present an interesting set of rock mechanics issues stemming from mining in a unique underground environment. Like other minerals occurring in tabular deposits, trona is mined using high-productivity room-and-pillar and longwall methods. However, trona does not behave quite like other evaporites and behaves far differently than coal. In this paper, the following key issues in trona patch rock mechanics are discussed: material properties, in situ stress field, water and gas pressure effects, creep characteristics, pillar behavior, roof span stability, floor stability, underground tailings storage, longwall mining, two-seam mining. and solution mining. Many of the existing trona producers are entering potentially more difficult mining conditions, and much consideration is being given to "new" technologies such as longwall mining and solution mining. In analyzing 20 years of experience with trona patch rock mechanics issues the authors have identified key comparisons and contrasts with conventional tabular deposit rock mechanics that will help illuminate what has been learned as the trona patch enters the 21" century.

Jan 1, 1999

By M. K. Larson

The U.S. Bureau of Mines conducted a study to evaluate support interaction between conventional bolts and the rib at two Western coal mines. The principal goal was to develop guidelines for designing rib support under various conditions. At mine A, seven rib bolts were installed with load cells and monitored over a 4-month period. Fifty-seven pull tests were conducted with two types of anchors at various depths. At mine B, 163 pull tests were conducted. Results showed that during the 4 months of monitoring bolt load, tension in the bolts decreased over time in some situations and that anchorage capacity was reduced in a yielded zone. Load-versus-deformation plots from pull tests in the rib showed fundamental differences in anchorage behavior at the two mines, particularly when comparing results of tests in old pillars at mine A and tests in new ribs at mine B. Numerical modeling experiments indicate that coal bonding strength was the most significant factor in determining postyield anchorage capacity. Correlation of anchor yield point with anchor depth were more pronounced at mine A than at mine B; measuring torque may be a reasonable method of monitoring deteriorating anchorage capacity in a rib undergoing fracturing and yield.

Jan 1, 1996

By Y. H. Wang

During the last two decades many research projects were conducted to study the load requirements for the powered supported longwall faces (1-6). Significant results had been achieved by these researches. Most of the previous studies were rarely designed to understand the mechanisms of interaction between the supports and the surrounding rock, or to correlate the stress conditions around longwall faces to the mining operations both in time and space. In case of the shield supported faces, the roof-to-floor convergence is very difficult to measure due to the high percentage of roof coverage. The external load on the supports can not be determined from the leg pressure data alone due to the existence of the lemniscate links. Therefore, there is a real need in that a simple engineering method be developed to monitor the variations of roof load on the shield supports, the roof-to-floor convergence and the roof stress restoration in the gob area as the mining proceeds. Only with the results of these measurements, a further understanding about the mechanisms of interaction between the supports and the surrounding rock can be achieved and a criterion of designing or selecting the optimum mechanical parameters of the shield supports can finally be developed.

Jan 1, 1986

By John C. Stankus

Jennmar Corporation. in an effort to improve mine roof control, has conducted extensive study and research comparing tensioned point anchor resin systems versus the use of non-tensioned fully grouted rehar. Preliminary indications are showing that in thinly laminated, weak strata, tensioned point anchor resin systems are providing more effective roof control than the non-tensioned fully grouted rehar. In this paper two case studies are presented in which tensioned point anchor resin systems were utilized to stabilize and control the mine roof in two different mines. Both mines are alike in many ways, but yet very different in other aspects. However, the mines do share one main common factor. and that being the non-effectiveness of the non-tensioned fully grouted rebar in controlling the thinly lamininated strata in each respective mine.

Jan 1, 1990

By Yi Luo

A longwall mining operation went under a tall, self-supporting and free-standing wireless communication transmission tower. In anticipation of that the ground subsidence process might affect the transmission tower, the mining company took a proactive approach to mitigate the expected subsidence influences. The efforts include prediction of surface subsidence process at the location of the tower, assessment of stability, structural integrity and functionality of the tower structures, and design and implementation of mitigation measures. The intension of this paper is to demonstrate the techniques that can be used to assess and mitigate the subsidence effects on tall self-supporting and free standing tower structures.

Jan 1, 2008

By David A. Newman

Barrier pillars created during mine development provide additional reserves during mine closure and can be the sole access to reserves previously abandoned because of mining height or out of seam dilution limitations. The safe and successful mining of barrier pillars requires a thorough knowledge of the magnitude and distribution of the vertical stress field in addition to the strength and physical properties of the coal, immediate roof, and immediate floor strata. Quantifying the vertical stress field is complicated by the combination of the overburden stress, abutment stresses transferred onto the barrier pillar from adjacent gob areas, and in multiple seam mining, stresses transferred from abandoned subjacent mines. These variables make the extraction and development of barrier pillar reserves a site specific consideration. Three case histories are presented in which barrier pillar development and extraction provides; i) an access point and the means to ventilate a large area of low seam reserves left by a prior operator after developing only the thicker areas of a multiple split reserve, ii) the means to increase total recovery of a deep, thick seam longwall reserve, and iii) opportunities for the development and retreat mining of a two mile long barrier pillar in thick seam reserves.

Jan 1, 1995

By Y. Luo

A PC based computer model has been developed by the authors for predicting the surface subsidence due to underground coal mining. Its reliability, comprehensiveness and user friendliness demonstrate that it is a good tool for the mine operators, government agencies and scientific researchers alike.

Jan 1, 1989

By Jiulong Cheng

Underground coal mining causes overburden deformation and failure, one major form of which is bed separation in the overburden. Surface subsidence can be controlled by injecting grout into the bed separations. For a long time, the grouting results of bed separation can not be validated. This is the problem in the application of this technique. This paper analyzes the conditions leading to bed separation, develops mathematical models for seismic wave fields generated before and after bed separation, and bed separations grouted with different materials, and computes the seismic wave field characteristics using the finite difference method. The results show that the existence of bed separation causes changes in the characteristics of seismic wave field, and that different grouting materials generate different seismic wave field characteristics. Intact strata, bed separation, and bed separation filled with air or water all display distinctive seismic wave field in amplitude and frequency spectra. After mining, the original location that provides strong seismic reflection wave no long exists. It is replaced by a weak and syncline-shaped reflection wave. The area, where the seam wave disappears, is larger than that of the mined area. The location, where a bed separation occurs, generates a set of reflection waves stronger than the normal one. The energy of the reflection waves varies with the materials filling the separations. Bed separations filled with air generate stronger reflection waves than those filled with water. The major frequencies for those filled with air are lower than those filled with water. Therefore, it is possible to determine the property of filling materials by analyzing and comparing the amplitude and frequency spectra of the reflection waves. Case studies of application of seismic method for exploring bed separations and grouting were analyzed. The results show that it is feasible to use seismic technique for exploring bed separations and grouting.

Jan 1, 2006

By S. L. Huang

The location and shape of potential failure surfaces in soil slopes were directly determined based on the stresses induced in the soil mass and the strength of the soil itself. Stress calculations were carried out by the finite element method with the Drucker-Prager nonlinear material model. The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and Mohr's circle stress analysis were then applied to the calculated stresses to determine the characteristics of the failure surface.

Jan 1, 1989

By Hamid Maleki

Roof falls are one of the leading ground control problems that adversely influence productivity and worker safety in underground mines, construction sites, and nuclear waste repositories. To control roof stability problems, the operator needs to have practical methods for measuring changes in strata conditions and criteria for defining the timing of secondary support installation. The objective of this study was to develop measurement techniques and criteria for assessing roof conditions at the mining face. An integrated rock deformation and tomographic imaging method was developed and applied at two sites in a western U.S. trona mine. It was shown that rock damage occurred at a deformation of 30 to 60 mm (1.2 to 2.4 in) (2 to 4 pct strain) and was associated with a significant (16 pct) reduction in wave velocity. Thus, supplementary support may be installed when there is a measured change in wave velocity of at least 16 pct. Tomographic measurements can be obtained in rocks rapidly, thus providing a powerful tool for analyzing growth of failure and for installing supplementary support systems in a timely manner.

Jan 1, 1996

By Andrew P. Jarosz

The present computerized mine planning systems use CAD-like and Data Base Management System (DBMS) environments for the handling of numerical, textural, and graphical data. These two environments are usually integrated, that the data provided by the DBMS are linked to any graphical element rendered by the CAD system. The subsidence monitoring, analysis and prediction process should be integrated with the mine design process. It should allow for the assessment of impacts of mining on surface, surface utilities, and structures. It should also provide for the measures to control mining, that will create only acceptable levels of negative impacts on the surface. The common data base, and graphical capabilities of the CAD interface, may be used with great advantage for both systems. The findings of the subsidence engineering modulus should be directly incorporated into the mine design system, and vice versa. In this paper the author suggests guidelines for the development of the comprehensive computer system, able not only to predict the vertical and horizontal components of the ground movement, but also assess the induced surface damages, and costs related to subsidence prevention and compensation.

Jan 1, 1995

By I. V. Baklashov

Geomechanical conditions of mining operation are determined by varying in time and space mechanical properties and initial state of the rock mass, by geological and technological factors. We define adaptive mining technology as a technology capable of adjusting to changing geomechanical conditions of mining operation. The ongoing research at Moscow State Mining University consisting of laboratory, theoretical, and field investigations aims at the development of theoretical basis and methodology of the system of geomechanical support of adaptive mining technology for the bedded salt deposit in the Urals, mined by room-and-pillar method. This system of geomechanical support is capable of - dynamically assessing mechanical properties and state of the rock mass varying within the panel; - mapping mechanical properties of the rock mass within the panel; - assessing and predicting mechanical condition of load-bearing elements of the rock mass and its changes due to the adjustment of the parameters of mining operation considering the in-situ geomechanical conditions.

Jan 1, 1996

By Vincent A. Scovazzo

Many accepted and useful methods have been developed and used for pillar design. Each method has its own particular strengths and weaknesses. Three methods addressed in this paper are; empirical, analytical, and numerical. Each of these methods have their place in pillar design. Analytical methods result in close approximation of the ideal pillar (most economical, stable, or yielding) and are suitable for use in final mine design and in analyzing existing problems. BOYD uses the analytical method to develop site specific mine pillars design equations. An analytical method, one of many developed by BOYD, is presented here and is based on the procedure used by Wilson (1) and others in development of their empirical equations.

Jan 1, 1995

By Victor V. Nazimko

Long term stability of the pillars that have been remained after R&P extraction causes postponed subsidence. To prevent unforeseen subsidence and to diminish postponed subsidence 25-50% new method for its control has been developed by the author. It supposes to use drilling and blasting technology and other original approaches. New method has been fulfilled through the holes being drilled from the surface or from the active underground openings. Explosives had been charged into the holes and were blasted. This had increased bulking factor dramatically and prevented natural caving of the strata. Physical scale modeling corroborated efficiency of the new approach. The bulking factor has grown from 0.0623 to 0.1185 and surface subsidence has been diminished from 1.1 m to 0.2 m or 5.5 times.

Jan 1, 1996

By G. J. Hasenfus

This paper presents the results of an extensive hydrological and geomechanical monitoring program which Gas conducted at a longwall coal mine in W. Va. The field program included monitoring of groundwater levels. overburden hydraulic conductivity, overburden movement, and surface subsidence relative to the passage of the longwall. Overburden geology and rock strength characteristics were evaluated prior to mining. A postmining corehole was drilled to evaluate main roof fracturing. An overburden response model is proposed based on the correlations between hydrological and geomechanical data.

Jan 1, 1988

As the surface reserves are being depleted, more and more stone operators are seeking underground mining options. Stability of underground openings is a major concern for the safety and productivity. This paper relates to a field study conducted at a large underground limestone mine in Central Pennsylvania. Identification of hazards leading to ground failures and assessment of roof fall risks are important in mitigating injuries. Field observations at this mine were integrated with Roof Fall Risk Index (RFRI) mapping software recently developed by West Virginia University. The system is designed to combine field study data related to geologic factors, mining-induced damages, roof profile, and ground water influx to generate RFRI maps. The mine has adopted a proactive ground control program consisting of comprehensive examination of drilling and bolting logs; precision surveying of roof and rib; accurate mapping of cutters, falls, and geologic structures; and installation of extensometers and microseismic monitoring systems. Investment of time and resources has eliminated fatalities and lost-time injuries due to ground fall. This paper presents the geologic settings, mining conditions, ground control issues along with risk management and control techniques adopted at the study mine.

Jan 1, 2009

By David Newman

In Eastern Kentucky, the Darby seam has had an extensive history of coal bumps and pillar bursts. The combination of high overburden, strong rock and coal, subjacent and superjacent mines, and retreat mining has produced incidences of violent pillar failure. The influence of these factors on pillar stability and the potential to bump is illustrated in two case histories. In the first case history, a bump occurred unexpectedly during the retreat mining of a five heading continuous haulage panel. Alternative cut sequences and pillar dimensions were analyzed to identify a geometry that would reduce the potential for future coal bumps or bounces during retreat mining. The viability of the alternatives was constrained by the reach of the continuous haulage system, the overburden depth, and the presence of thick sandstones in the main roof. Each alternative was numerically modeled cut-by-cut to examine the mechanism of stress transfer, as a pillar row is retreat mined. This approach highlighted which cuts were being made in highly stressed portions of a pillar and therefore more prone to coal outbursts. Validation of the numerical modeling was accomplished by comparing the cuts where bumps and outbursts had occurred underground to the highly stressed cuts shown within the models. Recommendations of the barrier pillar width between adjacent panels, pillar dimensions, and changes in the retreat mining sequence were proposed based upon the overburden thickness, geology, and the result of the numerical modeling. The second case history documents a nine-entry panel 3,600-feet long that was retreat mined a distance of 2,064-feet without a significant roof fall or roof-floor convergence. Mine management became concerned about the potential for a coal bump or a large roof collapse within the gob and the resulting air blast. The stress on the pillar line and within the remnant pillars in the gob was quantified through numerical modeling. Changes in mining practices on the current panel were implemented to avoid a bump in the active panel. A barrier was established between the current and the future panels to protect the future panel against abutment pressures from the void area. A change in pillar centers was proposed in the adjacent panel to absorb the side abutment pressure from the gob of the active panel.

Jan 1, 2008