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By Russell Frith

Probably the most expensive but least well understood roof falls in underground coal mining, are those that occur ahead of the powered supports in the centre of longwall face. Even small roof cavities result in the dilution of the ROM product and large cavities can stop the face for days if not weeks and the incurred cash flow losses can be catastrophic. Expensive and time-consuming remedial measures (e.g. PUR, cavity filling, removal of stone from the AFC by hand) are required and equipment wear and damage can be significant when the need to blast and convey stone is also considered. Through four major research projects within the Australian coal industry and numerous consulting assignments, the author has spent the best part of fifteen years attempting to identify and defme the various geotechnical and operational factors that determine whether a major roof cavity occurs ahead of the powered supports or a normal goaf fall occurs just behind them, the difference in operational outcome being enormous. The paper presents a condensed summary of the overall technical findings covering such issues as roof fall mechanisms, the measured influence of cover depth, periodic weighting of massive strata units and its quantification, the role of cut-throughs in chain pillars, face width and height, the role of the powered support and the influence (both positive and negative) of mine site operations. The big picture outcome is the view that high production longwall extraction is well-suited to certain geotechnical environments, is marginal in others and under certain conditions is fatally flawed and beyond the control of mine operators, although fortunately the latter category is a relatively rare situation. Various risk-based research findings in this regard will be given as a basis for future discussion.

Jan 1, 2005

By Saeed Zhandi, Behdeen Oraee

"Rock bursts remain an important problem in longwall coal mining. These bursts are due to a sudden and severe failure of rocks from a high stress concentration in deep underground excavations that occur with the instantaneous release of strain energy stored in the rocks. They can potentially cause irrecoverable damage to equipment and personnel, thus accurate rock burst prediction and control is expected to be carried out by the mine design engineer. As a result, this can constitute major challenges for said engineer. In this paper, forensic engineering has been used to evaluate the possibility and extent of rock bursts in deep coal mining. For this purpose, established mining engineering principles, including factors influencing the severity of rock bursts, have been incorporated in the forensic engineering technique. The analyses took place in five steps:• Assessment of regional and local conditions prior to the event• Assessment of conditions after the event• Hypothesize plausible ways in which pre-event conditions can become post-event ones• Search for evidence that either denies or supports various hypotheses• Apply engineering knowledge to relate the various facts and evidence into a cohesive scenario of how the event may have occurred.The paper concludes by demonstrating a method for predicting rock bursts and preventing their reoccurrence. The methodology used in this paper, together with the results obtained, can serve as useful tools for the coal mine design engineer in the primary evaluation of rock burst potential in underground coal mines.INTRODUCTIONA rock burst is defined as the sudden and great failure of rocks due to a high stress concentration in deep underground mines. This phenomenon occurs with the instantaneous release of strain energy that is stored in the rocks, and can cause irrecoverable damages to both equipment and personnel (see Figure 1). Rock bursts pose a hazard owing to their lake of predictability; in fact, research into understanding rock burst mechanics and implementing techniques for their monitoring and prediction has been taking place for over 50 years."

Jan 1, 2015

By Ihsan B. Tulu, Keith A. Heasley, Aanand Nandula

"The objective of this paper is to present the development of a software tool that will assist in an area calculation of the Analysis of Roof Bolting Systems (ARBS) support intensity while incorporating more detailed geology, stress, and intersection span input. In this area ARBS tool, a detailed CMRR distribution can be determined from the available geologic database at the mine. In addition, the overburden and multiple-seam stresses, as obtained from the boundary-element program LaModel, can be converted to a “pseudo-depth” which is then used as the depth input to the area ARBS calculation. Finally, the section-specific intersection spans can be determined from the mine design for input to the calculation. All this detailed area input information for ARBS is handled by the latest version of the Stability Mapping (StabMap) program, which now outputs an area ARBS suggested support density given the required input parameters. This final ARBS grid can be plotted, analyzed and overlaid on the mine map for optimum use in support design and for presentation to production personnel.INTRODUCTIONSince the inception of roof bolts in the 1940s, there has been a lack of a universally accepted roof bolting design method (Mark, 2002; Mark and Pappas, 2012). To address this situation, the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Hazard (NIOSH) developed roof support design guidelines, which were incorporated into a computer program called the Analysis of Roof Bolting Systems (ARBS). These guidelines were based on the effects of roof quality, stress, and mine geometry (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001). The roof rock quality in ARBS is represented by the Coal Mine Roof Rating (CMRR), the depth is used as a surrogate for the stress, and the intersection span serves to represent the mine geometry (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001). These three input parameters are used in the fundamental, empirically derived equation of ARBS to calculate a required support density factor, called ARBS, (Mark, Molinda and Dolinar, 2001):"

Jan 1, 2018

By David A. Newman

In the 1950s, an underground limestone mine in the Camp Nelson Formation was developed from an outcrop exposure. The Camp Nelson Limestone met the requirements for DOT stone and aggregate. The mine ownership changed several times, which resulted in distinct mine designs in Level 1. Based upon the production requirements and an attempt to maximize limestone recovery from a single level, a variety of pillar dimensions and three mining heights (28 feet, 68 feet and 83 feet) were developed. This was sufficient prior to reaching the mineable extent of Level 1. Level 2 introduced previously unknown ground control challenges. These included: ??Pillar spalling and a significant back fall on the Level 1 - Level 2 decline; ??Laminated immediate back and the need to bolt the back on Level 2; ??Delamination of the back adjacent to the Level 1 - Level 2 decline resulting in bolt shearing, and floor heave in isolated areas of Level 2; ??Multiple level interaction, the need to design pillars based upon numerical modeling as columnization between Levels is infeasible: and ??Water inflow as the mine approached river. To meet the challenges, a testing program to determine rock strength and physical properties was implemented along with numerical (LAMODEL and FEM) modeling, and borescope inspections of the immediate back. The efforts to implement rock mechanics were re-focused as Level 2 approached its mineable limit and the initial attempt to drive a decline to Level 3 was unsuccessful. A second decline site was selected based on inter burden stability, a consistent shale parting for the Level 3 back horizon, results from numerical models of the immediate back and multiple level interactions, and the projected low water inflow. The mine is operating on Levels 2 and 3 with long-term planning and ground monitoring for Level 3.

Jan 1, 2014

By Peter Zhang

Room and pillar mining under shallow depth is usually conducted with a high extraction ratio, which leaves small pillars with a low safety factor in some old workings in abandoned mines. Pillar sloughage, squeezing or even collapse may have occurred in those old workings with small pillars, either at the time of mining or later. The conditions of the pillars in abandoned mines can affect mining above them. Subsidence fractures and abutment pressure are indications of multi-seam interaction caused by squeezing or collapse of small pillars. To mine over areas with potentially unstable small pillars, the panel layout in the upper seam should be such that multi-seam interaction can be minimized and proper roof and rib support should be installed in the influence zones. This case study presents an example of multi-seam mining above small pillars under a shallow depth of cover. Though the interburden is relatively thick and competent, interaction is still present over the influence zones. Pillar stability and multi-seam interaction analysis, numerical modeling and in-situ monitoring are presented to demonstrate how the upper seam can be mined safely over the small pillars.

Jan 1, 2014

By Kevin W. Harris

Multiple-seam coal mining is a major issue in underground coal mining that adds additional complexity to the practice of ground control. As reserve exploitation is driven by economics, it is now difficult to mine coal without the existence of previous workings above and/or below the active seam; this is particularly true in the Appalachian coalfields. The frequency in which problematic multiple-seam interactions are now encountered has resulted in significant research regarding the underlying mechanisms of the problems and methods of mitigation. In the last few decades, a great deal has been learned about these interactions and the ability to minimize problems associated with these hazards has greatly advanced, resulting in better economics and improved safety. Minimizing the adverse effects of stress interactions often requires a thorough understanding of site-specific geotechnical parameters and previous mining geometry. This is especially evident in bump-prone ground, where pillar behavior is highly dependent on local conditions. This paper presents a case study in a deep cover, Central Appalachian coal mine where three bump events occurred. Initially, empirical design software was used in an effort to analyze the situation and prevent further instability. The empirical study proved ineffective. A detailed investigation of the bump events using the boundary element software LaModel 3.0 was then performed. This study resulted in a site-specific calibration standard that will be applied in numerical pillar design for the remaining reserve.

Jan 1, 2014

By Jun Lu

The Pittsburgh seam is the most extensively mined coal bed in the Appalachian Basin. Unlike most other prominent coal seams, the Pittsburgh seam typically includes a sequence of immediate roof coals and intervening rock binders (or ?draw slate?), most of which are within mineable horizons. Furthermore, unlike the main bench, the thickness of the overlying roof coals and their intervening rock binders can vary significantly. For instance, in southwestern Pennsylvania, the Pittsburgh seam main bench typically ranges from about 5.0 to 6.0 feet thick with minimal variation over short distances. On the other hand, the Pittsburgh seam roof coals and immediate roof binder typically range from a few inches to several feet, and in certain geologic settings can vary significantly over short distances. Additionally, in some locations, very thick draw slate can totally replace the roof coals. Since the draw slate, which typically consists of claystone or clayladen shale, is relatively weak, the presence of thick and variable draw slate in the roof and rib can significantly affect mine safety and productivity. This paper presents the adverse effect of thick draw slate on a 1500-foot-wide longwall face in a southwestern Pennsylvania coal mine. Mapping of the thick draw slate, numerical models which illustrate stress distribution and failure associated with thick draw slate, and operational adjustments instituted to mitigate the negative impact of thick draw slate will be discussed in detail.

Jan 1, 2013

By Adam Mackenzie, Dan Payne, Yass-Marie Rutty

"Historically, the Crinum mine has experienced significant falls of ground when longwall production slowed to prepare for recovery in weak roof areas. These conditions continue through the recovery process and result in both safety concerns and delays. When mine plans and exploration revealed that most of the mine's future longwall recoveries were located in weak roof areas, a decision was made to try pre-driven recovery roads as a solution to the problem. After completing eight pre-driven recovery roads with varying degrees of success and numerous lessons, the Crinum North mine now utilizes a modified Pre-driven Recovery Roadway (PDRR) to improve the longwall take-off process in weak roof areas. During mine development, a standard roadway is driven where the final recovery location of each longwall is planned. After the installation of secondary support, the PDRR is backfilled with a cement-flyash mix to provide support to the roof, and confinement to the ribs and floor of the roadway. The method has been refined over the last four years to provide greater strata stability and improved operational and safety performance compared with conventional take-offs at Crinum, and has resulted in a site record of longwall relocation in 11.5 days (pull mesh to picks in coal). This paper describes the evolution of the PDRRs from Crinum East to Crinum North, including lessons from initial attempts and changes to the secondary support regime, the operational approach during the final stages of retreat, the backfill strategy and plans for the future.INTRODUCTIONThe Crinum mine is the underground component of BHP Billiton Mitsubishi Alliance's (BMA) Gregory Crinum mine, located northeast of Emerald, Queensland (Figure 1).The Crinum mine has a history of roof control problems coming into and during longwall recoveries. Weak roof, combined with the slow mining, which is a consequence of preparing for equipment recovery, pulling mesh (which also creates tip-to-face issues), and the lengthy bolt-up process, often results in loss of immediate roof and subsequent roof falls. In fact, approximately 50% of the first 13 longwall recoveries (which were at depths of 180 to 200m) experienced roof fall delays, the longest of which took four months to mine the last pillar and recover the longwall. This recurring problem prompted the mine to investigate options to reduce or eliminate the problem."

Jan 1, 2016

By Kevin J. Ma, John Stankus, Dakota Faulkner

"Expandable rock bolts are widely used in hard rock mines as an efficient ground control product. However, capacity and service life can be significantly reduced if the metallic body is subjected to corrosion. In some hard rock mines in the U.S., highly corrosive ground conditions exist, and it has been reported that inflatable rock bolts have corroded within a few months after installation. To provide mining industry a cost-effective inflatable bolt and combat the corrosion issues, Jennmar Corporation, Inc., and its subsidiary Keystone Mining Services, LLC (KMS), analyzed corroded bolt samples, identified root causes, evaluated properties of various coating materials, and developed a new inflatable rock bolt, Python M3TM, that is protected with an innovative PyFlexU2TM coating. The new generation Python M3 features improved steel chemistry for reliable performance, modified profile for better inflation, and surface preparation and coating application. The PyFlexU2 is impervious to liquid and air, durable, and UV resistant. With a flexible adhesive, and highly corrosion-resistant undercoating, and a very hard sacrificial surface coating, the PyFlexU2 coating system provides the Python M3 superior protection against chemical corrosion and physical scratch damage. The under-coating has exceptional flexibility and adhesion to prevent coating micro-cracks or fractures after bolt inflation and possesses excellent corrosion resistance to acids (pH <3), alkalis (pH >11), fuels, and salt solvents. The corrosion and scratch resistant PyFlexU2 coating offers very effective bolt protection for extra longevity in highly corrosive environments. The Python M3 coated with PyFlexU2 has been tested in the most challenging conditions, including laboratory corrosion tests in extreme acidic and basic solvents, rock slurry, and borehole scratch insertion tests. With demonstrated corrosion and scratch resistance, the product has been greatly welcomed by hard rock mines in the West and is currently installed in large scale. This paper identifies the root causes of the bolt corrosion, discusses the analysis process, and details laboratory and underground tests carried out on the Python M3 coated with PyFlexU2. The Python M3TM and PyFlexU2TM are subjects covered by pending U.S. Patent Applications assigned to FCI Holdings Delaware, LLC."

Jan 1, 2017

By Winton Gale

"The aim of this paper is to summarise the results and conclusions of Australian Coal Association Research Project (ACARP) Report Cl3013 which relate to water inflows into a mine which occur through the overburden above and adjacent to longwall panels. The study assessed available data of inflows into underground coal mines and utilised computer simulation of water flow through fracture networks. The study concluded that flow into mines is typically via an interconnected network of pre-existing and mining induced fractures. The height above the coal seam that mining induced fractures extend is typically related to the width of the panel. However the potential for those fractures to form a connected network which can facilitate flow, is related to the amount of subsidence and the depth of mining. The study compares model simulations with measured data and provides guidelines to estimate the average hydraulic conductivity of the overburden above extracted longwall panels in Australia.INTRODUCTIONWater inflow into coal mines has been a design issue for many years. Guidelines as to the potential for water inflow have been developed in many countries based on local experience and the form of mining being undertaken. In most instances, the guidelines relate to inflows which would endanger underground personnel and operations.In more recent times, water inflow criteria for mines has been widened to include lesser inflows which may not impact on mine safety or operations, but have the potential to reduce water flow within streams and surface aquifers. For the purpose of this paper the larger inflows which are readily measured in a mine or may impact on mining safety are defined as mine inflow and the lesser inflow relating to aquifer water loss as environmental inflow.The water losses referred to are those which enter the mine from the surface or from near surface aquifers.The empirical relationships developed as mine design guidelines or regulations typically relate to high flow (mine inflow) situations and in this paper, these have been reviewed as to their application to environmental inflow. In many cases environmental inflows were unlikely to have been noted or recorded in many mining operations in the past."

Jan 1, 2010

By Ken W. Mills

The ground movements associated with underground coal mining and, in particular, longwall mining, are recognised to include horizontal subsidence movements, but the mechanics of the processes that cause these horizontal movements are not well understood. Over the last two decades, three-dimensional subsidence monitoring has become routine in Australia and has provided a wealth of measurements of horizontal movements caused by mining subsidence. These measurements and other sub-surface observations allow the processes that cause mining-induced horizontal movements to be inferred and, subsequently, verified. In this paper, the mechanics of the processes that cause horizontal movements, particularly those in sloping topography, are described and discussed on the basis of field observations. There are several processes recognised to generate horizontal subsidence movements. In flat terrain, systematic horizontal movements cause the surface to move initially toward the newly created goaf and, subsequently, in the direction of mining. Tectonic energy stored as horizontal stress is released by mining, and, when the horizontal stresses are high, the magnitude of this horizontal stress relief movement is large enough to be perceptible for some kilometres from the panel. In sloping terrain, there is an additional component of horizontal movement that occurs in a down slope direction. This movement, sometimes referred to as valley closure movement, has a magnitude that is typically much greater than systematic or stress relief movements.

Jan 1, 2014

By Yvette Heritage

"The risk of fatalities from rib failure is still prevalent in the coal mining industry. This risk has prompted further research to be conducted on rib deformation in order to understand the mechanisms of rib failure, with the long-term objective being to improve rib support design. This paper presents the results of ACARP research project C25057, which investigated the mechanics and drivers of rib failure. The results of rib deformation monitoring at three different mines in Australia provides rib deformation characteristics for overburden depths ranging from 160 m to 530 m. Monitoring includes deformation during development drivage conditions and during the longwall retreat abutment stress environment. The rib deformation monitoring covered three different seams: the Goonyella Middle Seam, Ulan Seam, and Bulli Seam in the Bowen Basin, Western Coalfield, and Southern Coalfield, respectively. The observed mechanisms driving the rib deformation ranged from bedding shear failure along weak claystone bands to vertical shear fractures to kinematic failures driven by shear failure dilation. The variation in mechanisms of rib failure, together with the seemingly consistent method of rib support design, prompts the question: What exactly is the role of rib support?INTRODUCTIONThe current risk of rib fatalities in the coal mining industry has prompted further research into understanding the mechanisms of rib failure. Three Australian mines assisted further research by providing sites for rib deformation studies as part of the Australian Coal Association Research Program (ACARP) project C25057. The mines included in this study were Moranbah North Mine, Ulan West Mine, and Appin Mine. This paper provides key results of the rib deformation monitoring relevant to assessing the mechanisms of rib deformation.The approach of monitoring rib deformation and rib support loads was used to measure and characterise the dynamic rib deformation present in both development and longwall retreat stress environments. The characterisation of rib deformation, together with rock failure modelling, was used to determine the mechanisms for failure within the rib and to assess the interaction of rib support with the failure process. The mechanisms of rock failure are considered an important factor in understanding the drivers for the failure. Consideration of the site-specific failure mechanisms can provide for a more tailored support design."

Jan 1, 2018

By Michael Jenkins

This paper reviews the history of rock burst research in the Coeur d&apos;Alene Mining District of northern Idaho over the last 30 years. Rock bursting is a problem because of a combination of geological factors in the region--complex structure, high horizontal stresses, and strong, brittle rock that readily stores strain energy. The Bureau of Mines has cooperated with industry to study rock burst phenomenon for many years. Early work focused on methods to mitigate bursting problems within the context of existing mining methods. In the 1970&apos;s, researchers began investigating methods for altering or controlling conditions that lead to rock bursts. These control measures become part of the stope development that precedes mining or are changes in the mining process itself. Although, researchers continue to develop microseismic techniques, the major research effort focuses on developing a new mining method to reduce the number and severity of rock bursts in order to improve safety and increase productivity in the Coeur d&apos;Alene Mining District.

Jan 1, 1987

By Jesse Puller, Ken Mills

"This paper describes the Australia, New Zealand Inflatable (ANZI) strain cell, its operation, and recent development for overcoring in exploration boreholes. The ANZI strain cell is an instrument system that uses the overcoring method of stress relief to determine the three-dimensional, in-situ stresses in rock. The instrument has been used successfully for over three decades in numerous underground mining and civil projects, but technical advances over the last decade or so have allowed the system to be deployed in surface exploration boreholes to greater depths than was previously possible. Recent development of a downhole electronic data logger, a wireline-enabled drilling system, and an instrument deployment system has simplified the process of obtaining three-dimensional overcore measurements at depths approaching 1km to a single shift operation.The capability to deploy ANZI strain cells in surface exploration boreholes represents a significant breakthrough for the design of underground mines and underground excavations generally. High-confidence characterisation of the in-situ stresses at the design stage provides the opportunity to design key infrastructure and mining systems to take advantage of the in-situ stress field from the outset before mining begins. Understanding the three-dimensional, in-situ stress field not only provides a measure of the magnitude and direction of loads acting within the rock mass, it also provides insight into the mechanics of all the various processes driving ground deformations, including which geological fault structures are at limiting equilibrium.INTRODUCTIONThe overcoring method of stress relief is one of the most direct methods for determining three-dimensional, in-situ stresses in rock. The Australia, New Zealand Inflatable (ANZI) strain cell combines overcoring with several other techniques to provide determinations of the three-dimensional, in-situ stress field and the properties of the rock and, importantly, provides an indication of how much confidence can be placed in the measurement. This paper describes the advances that have enabled overcoring of the ANZI strain cell in deep surface exploration boreholes and the development of various complementary techniques that build additional confidence in the determination of the in-situ stress."

Jan 1, 2018

By Weijia Guo

With the exploitation of coal resources, a large area of land had been affected by surface subsidence, causing conflicts between man and land to become more conspicuous by the day, affecting the life of general public, and constraining further development of the land. This paper predicts the subsidence areas according to the 10-year mining plan of the Jibei mining district as an example. A plan of environmental management was developed based on sciences and practical economics.

Jan 1, 2006

By Christopher Mark

Coal bursts are typically associated with highly stressed coal. Most bursts occur during retreat mining (longwall mining or pillar recovery) in highly stressed locations like the tailgate corner of the longwall panel. Others are associated with multiple seam interactions. However, a small but significant percentage of coal bursts have occurred during development or in outby locations unaffected by active mining. Most development bursts have been relatively small, but some have been highly destructive. No theory of coal bursts can be complete if it does not account for this type of event. This paper focusses on the development mining coal burst experience in the US, putting it into the context of the entire US coal burst database. The first documented development coal burst occurred almost exactly 100 years ago during slope drivage at the Sunnyside Mine in Utah. Sunnyside subsequently had a long history of bursts, mainly during retreat mining but also during development. Several Colorado mines have also experienced multiple development bursts. Some, but by no means all, of the development bursts in these western US coalfields have been associated with faults. In the Central Appalachian coalfields, most development bursts have occurred in multiple seam situations. In some of these cases, however, there was no retreat mining in either seam. The paper closes with some lessons from this history, with implications for preventing such events in the future.

Jan 1, 2017

By Bob J. MacDonald

The Cape Breton Development Corporation is a federally owned Crown corporation in Canada that operates two coal mines the Prince and Phalen Colliery in the Province of Nova Scotia. Retreat longwall mining was first introduced to the shallower workings (I 80m) of Prince Colliery in the early 1980&apos;s. Phalen Colliery started longwall retreating in 1987 and since that time has extracted twelve panels. In 1993 there had been a total of eight longwalls varying in widths from 140-230m mined in Phalen Colliery that is on the Phalen Seam. Up to this point there were only minor ground control problems on the faces except for one of the earlier longwalls that was mining a split seam. There is some interaction on Phalen workings from remnant structures in the overlying Lingan and No. 26 Collieries which worked the Harbour Seam. Induced abutments loads along pillar edges have been observed and resulted in poor face conditions when mining the Phalen Seam. The ninth panel, 6 East was the first panel to suffer a major roof fall from the First Major Weighting. This was also the first panel to undermine a paleo sandstone river channel named the Lower Sandstone Unit (LSU). For the first time in Phalen&apos;s history subsequent longwalls began to experience periodic weighting events. The 6 East panel suffered a number of periodic weightings and on two occasions had to use foam cement to fill the cavities that resulted. On the next east side panel, 7 East, there were numerous periodic weighting events, but interestingly there was no significant First Major Weighting. 7 East was the first 260m wide panel and all others were 230m or less. This longwall was 3,400m long and began producing in December of 1994 and was still cutting coal in May of 1997. There were five significant roof fall events on this panel, three of which required foam cement to fill the cavities. Of these three the interruption to production varied from four days to seven months. There were definite precursors to each of the weightings including: 1) an increase in audible noise (termed bumping) on the face, 2) supports went rapidly into yield, 3) roof convergence increased, 4) water percolated from the face roof strata, and 5) severe spalling of the coal occurred resulting in increased tip to face distance. Longwall face weightings are a result of geomechanical factors and cannot be avoided However, the loss of roof control is a different matter and highly subjective to operational procedures. The causes of weightings, their magnitude and impact on the mining at Phalen have been investigated. The following factors have been identified as relevant to these occurrences. 1. The influence of pillars in the overlying Harbour Seam workings. 2. Location of the LSU relative to the Phalen Seam. 3. Thickness of the LSU. 4. Pressure arch effect from the adjacent gobs. 5. Poor operational practices on the longwall including: a) slow rate of retreat; b) inadequate supply of pump pressure to the hydraulic supports; c) premature yielding of the yield valves; and d) poor face alignment practices. This paper will review the events that took place on the 7 East longwall and show that the Lower Sandstone Unit is the primary cause of the weightings. However, other factors contributed to the loss of roof control and the formation of the roof cavities.

Jan 1, 1997

By Peter Zhang, Dan Neilans, Scott Peterson, Scott Wade, Joe Pugh, Ryan Mcgrady

"A coal outburst is a severe safety hazard in room-and-pillar mining under deep cover. It is more likely to occur during pillar retreating. Multi-seam mining dramatically increases the risk of coal outburst within the influence zones created by remnant pillars and gob-solid boundaries. Though coal outburst is generally associated with heavy loading of coal pillars, its occurrence is difficult to predict. Risk management provides a proactive tool to minimize coal outburst in room-and-pillar mining under deep cover. Risk assessment is the first step in identifying and quantifying outburst risk factors. The primary risk factors for coal outburst are overburden depth, roof and floor strength, geological anomalies, mining type, multi-seam mining, and panel width. A risk assessment chart can be used to proactively screen out mining sections with high risk of coal outburst for further analysis. Gob-solid boundaries and remnant pillars are critical factors in evaluation of the coal outburst risk of multi-seam mining. Risk identification, risk assessment, geologic influence mapping, geotechnical evaluation, risk analysis, risk mitigation, and monitoring are essential elements of coal outburst risk management process. Training is an integral part of risk management for risk identification and communication between all the stakeholders including management, technical and safety personnel, and miners.INTRODUCTIONA coal outburst is a sudden violent burst of coal from a pillar with broken coal or blocks of coal forcibly ejected into open entries. A coal outburst is a severe safety hazard as the mining crew is highly exposed at the site when the event occurs. Though deep cover and strong roof and floor are underlying geologic conditions of a potential burst incident, its real occurrence is also the result of additional mining factors. In room-and-pillar mining, a coal outburst could occur during both development and pillar retreating, but the latter greatly increases the risk of outburst. The other risk factors of coal outburst also include mining layout, multi-seam mining, presence of adjacent gob, cutting sequence, and local abnormal geologic conditions. Over the years, the cases of coal outbursts have been studied by many researchers and mining practitioners(Peng, 2008; Newman, 2008; Iannacchione and Tadolini, 2008; Gauna and Phillipson, 2008; Hoelle, 2008; and Newman, 2002). It is commonly believed that the coal outburst is the result of a sudden release of elastic strain energy stored in coal pillars and is highly associated with cutting into heavily loaded coal pillars, but its occurrence is a rare event and is difficult to predict. A number of engineering controls have been recommended to mitigate outburst potential. For room-and-pillar mining, sufficient pillar sizes have been the primary control for coal outburst prevention. The pillar design tools such as ARMPS and AMSS developed by NIOSH have played an important role in the design of stable pillars to prevent pillar collapse and squeezing as well as coal outbursts. In fact, with the implementation of pillar design using proper stability factors, pillar collapse and squeezing have been almost eliminated, and the number of coal outbursts has been greatly reduced in the US over the past decade. However, after a few outbursts occurred during pillar retreating in the US over the past a few years (MSHA, 1996; MSHA, 2014; MSHA, 2013), it has been realized that sufficient pillar size is still not enough to prevent coal outbursts. The investigations of the incidents showed that other factors such as multi-seam mining, panel layout, cutting sequence, and local geologic factors also seemed critical in causing the events. Therefore, it has become imperative that additional proactive measures beyond proper pillar design be implemented to prevent coal outbursts."

Jan 1, 2015

By Lorraine Kent

Excessive floor and side deformation are major problems in deep coal mine entries in Europe, and in particular in the UK where rockbolt support is used at depths of working of around 3000 ft. This has major economic and safety implications for the industry resulting in the potential for sidewall instability, disruption to mine infrastructure, (belt conveyors, floor mounted transport systems and powered supports), and the requirement to safely manage excavation of large quantities of floor material. European research aimed at improving deformation control is described. The outcomes include innovations in support systems, materials and installation practices, as well as better methods for predicting and monitoring deformation levels. As coal mines get deeper, some entry deformation is inevitable, and methods for mechanised removal of floor lift and repair of sidewalls have been developed to allow production to continue as mining clearances are re-established.

Jan 1, 2014

By A. Chrzanowski

The integrated approach to monitoring surveys is based on a simultaneous utilization of geodetic, photogrammetric and geotechnical measurements of displacements, tilts, strains and any other geometrical parameters of deformation. New techniques for the integrated surveys are being developed at the University of New Brunswick in cooperation with the Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology. A telemetry system for continuous monitoring of geotechnical measurements under difficult climatic and topographic conditions has been constructed and successfully tested in a coal mining area in western Canada. A generalized method for analysing the integrated deformation measurements has been developed and applied in the test area to yield three dimensional empirical modelling of surface movements from geodetic, photogrammetric and tilt surveys. The most appropriate model can be chosen from a statistical assessment of several modelling possibilities. The empirical model of the deformation can be employed in a "calibration" of the prediction (deterministic) model of the ground movements. A computer programme for two- and three-dimensional finite element modelling of elasto-plastic deformations has been developed at UNB as a part of the integrated approach. The :EM has been tested in predicting deformation in the test area in difficult geological conditions which were associated with an extraction of a steeply inclined coal seam. The results gave good agreement with the actual displacements obtained from geodetic measurements and confirmed the existence of a suspected fault.

Jan 1, 1984