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By Lance A. Roberts

Expansive soil formations can be found throughout the United States. When subjected to wetting, these formations have the potential to swell and exert large uplift forces on buildings and foundations. Lightly loaded structures, such as single family residences founded in areas of expansive soils, can be significantly damaged due to uplift movement from swelling actions. Designing an economical deep foundation that can resist uplift forces is critical to prevent damage to these structures. The current solutions to control uplift due to swelling soils, such as over-excavation and replacement of the expansive material or the use of drilled shafts can be costly. Piles made from recycled polymer materials could provide a solution. Due to a lower coefficient of friction along the interface of the soil-pile interface compared to traditional pile materials, solid recycled plastic piles can allow expansive soils to move nearly independently from the pile when wetted. This results in a much smaller magnitude of uplift force being transferred to the structure, which minimizes the risk of significant structural damage from excessive movements. This paper presents the results of research conducted on the use of recycled plastic piles in an expansive shale environment. The preliminary phase of the project involved the installation of six recycled plastic piles at a test site on the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology campus. Two of the piles were subjected to a full-scale compression load test in order to determine ultimate capacity. The remaining four piles were subjected to long-term monitoring of uplift movement during the course of the project. A concrete anchor was also installed at the test site for uplift monitoring. Data gathered during the field and laboratory testing was utilized in a non-linear soil-structure interaction model to predict the displacement behavior and internal stresses within a plastic pile and concrete anchor subjected to uplift forces from the swelling shale. While more research is needed to further understand the application for recycled plastic piles, the results from this research indicate that their use is a viable alternative for support of lightly loaded structures in expansive soil environments.

Jan 1, 2010

By Philip Dubbeling

Conventional dynamic sheetpiling techniques are ill-suited to urban development because of the emission of excessive noise and ground vibrations. Drilled shafts and slurry walls alleviate some of these environmental concerns but add additional problems due to large bulky machines, reliance on dusty concrete plants and urban trucking grief. To solve these problems, pre-fabricated sheetpiles are hydraulically jacked-in by reaction principle using a compact and lightweight press-in machine, a so called the "Silent Piler". Through scientific analysis, definition and systemization of press-in machines and methods, new construction concepts such as the one-step approach, implant structures, functional design and life cycle design have been developed to comply with new basic construction principles.

Jan 1, 2006

By Gerry Houlahan

The east span of the 3.5 km long SF-Oakland Bay Bridge is supported by different types of foundations along its span. Starting from the west, its first 460 m section comprising twin concrete box-girders is supported by sands and rock on Yerba Buena Island. A 620 m long steel suspension span then bridges a 25 m deep channel that is formed in sediments overlying rock. Twin concrete box girder structures, each 2.4 km long, complete the stretch over the remainder of San Francisco Bay to the engineered earth fill landing at its east end. For most of its length, the Skyway bridges water 3 to 10 m deep over soft surficial Young Bay Mud. The foundation types include spread footings with hold-downs, steel and concrete piles that are set in drilled rock sockets up to 3 m in diameter and 2.5 m diameter steel tubular piles driven to penetrations of up to 100 m. The design and construction-related considerations are presented. The different foundation types, influences of the site geology and earthquake demands on the substructures are discussed. The seismic motions of the bridge superstructures and substructures, as well as the depth-varying soil motions, influenced the foundation design. Together with performance-based design criteria, including post-earthquake footing displacement limits, these seismic demands influenced various aspects of the foundation design, including the use of battered and vertical piles.

Jan 1, 2005

By Jorj O. Osterberg

The Osterberg (O-Cell) Method makes it possible to separate the side shear resistance (skin friction) from end bearing. The O-Cell is placed on or near the bottom of a drilled shaft and after the concrete is poured and cured, an equal upward and downward pressure is applied. From the test, the load-upward deflection curve in side shear and the load-downward deflection curve in end bearing are drawn. Typical curves are shown where the ultimate load in side-shear is reached and where the ultimate load in end bearing is reached. Several examples of tests in which the test load reached ultimate loads far in excess of what was expected are shown. The side shear in rock sockets is shown to be much larger than generally estimated. Examples are given of where side shear is smaller than expected and the reasons discussed. Disturbance of the sides of drilled holes due to poor construction techniques and ways to avoid these conditions are considered. Examples of bottom hole disturbance are given and ways to prevent the disturbance are discussed. A graph showing the actual measured capacity of drilled shafts compared to the estimated capacity as a function of the hardness and strength of the soil or rock is presented.

Jan 1, 1999

By Mauricio Terceros, Martin Achmus, Freddy Lopez

The massive use of deep foundations had a remarkable influence in the building industry in the 20th century. Piles and micropiles made possible to erect thousands of civil structures around the world, changing quintessentially the urban and rural landscapes. Especially in urban areas, the ongoing development requires not only new infrastructure, but also to increase the capacity and/or to extend the serviceability of existing structures (buildings, bridges, etc.). Factors such as the change of use of existing facilities or the requirement to comply with updated building regulations confront Civil Engineers with the question, whether to tear down and build new structures, or to reinforce the existing structures from their foundations. Micropiling has enabled designers to come up with technical feasible solutions to retrofit the existing deep foundations, making the structural reinforcement a real option, even under considerable changes in the loading conditions. The following article presents an overview of an intervention project, where micropiles were designed to reinforce the original pile foundation of an existing building, enabling it to be reused with a different structural function. This paper will focus mainly on the analysis of the interaction between the existing piles and the reinforcing micropiles, especially in terms of settlements’ compatibility. Finally, the adopted solution, with its correspondent design considerations and execution process will be presented.

Jan 1, 2018

By Bruce Haldeman

Timber has been used as pile support for structures for 6,000 years. Some means of preservation of wood go back almost that far. Timber piles support all types of structures ? some are buried below the water table; others raise a home for protection from animals or a chief's home for prestige. Millions of wood piles have been driven for bridge support. Earlier piles were driven by hand then by ingeniously raised weights. Charring, animal fats and oils have been used for preservation. Coal tar creosote and other preservative methods started only in the early 1800's and give effective protection.

Jan 1, 1984

By K. Viking

The vibratory characteristics of full-scale sheet piles, vibratory driven into the ground, have so far not been described systematically in detail. This paper concerns the preliminary results of a series of full-scale field tests where both the driveability and induced ground vibrations have been continuously monitored. Furthermore, the results of measured ground vibration levels have been measured at two different sites characterised as having hard and easy driving conditions. In the light of the presented results, the paper briefly discusses how the complexity of a driveability and vibration prediction can be subdivided into three parts, namely, vibrator-, sheet pile-, and soil-related parameters, all of which significantly affect both the driveability and induced ground vibrations.

Jan 1, 2000

By Marc Dondelinger

Interlocking H sections with deep webs and high section modulus are being used for cofferdams and shore enclosures where pressures are excessive. The H sections can be as much as a meter deep; they can be used as continuous interlocked wall. A steel saving alternate is spacing the H and driving deep for stability then filling between with shorter interlocking sheet piles. Templates provide for exact positioning.

Jan 1, 1985

By Kanchan K. Sen

The North Shore Connector (NSC) project will extend the Allegheny County Port Authority?s Light Rail Transit System from downtown Pittsburgh below the Allegheny River to the North Shore via twin bore tunnels. Jet grouting, diaphragm walls, and soil mixing were selected as cost-effective technically viable ground improvement and support of excavation techniques. Jet grouting was specified to provide break-out (egress) and break-in (ingress) block sections at the tunnel boring machine (TBM) launching and receiving pits. Jet grout treatment was also used adjacent to buildings with shallow foundations and below retaining walls along the tunnel alignment. A new method for measuring jet grout column diameter based on electrical resistivity was employed on the project. New equipment was introduced in the U.S for constructing soil mix temporary support of excavation using a soil-mix technique termed Cutter Soil Mixing (CSM) due to the use of two vertical cutting wheels that have evolved from diaphragm wall trench cutter technology. The system allows for continuous water tight soil mix panel construction including steel beams. This paper highlights some applications of jet grouting and various support of excavation systems (e.g. slurry walls, cement bentonite walls and CSM walls), including new innovative techniques (e.g. Cyljet and CSM) used under the constraints of an urban environment.

Jan 1, 2010

By R. G. Horvath

In the Hamilton area, and in many other areas of Ontario and around the world, large diameter drilled pier (caisson) foundations are frequently selected as the most appropriate foundation system for heavily loaded structures. Locally, these drilled piers are typically founded in competent glacial till or in the underlying shale bedrock depending on the anticipated design loads. Drilled pier foundations socketed into shale bedrock were selected for the Hamilton General Hospital Addition. The structural loads applied to socketed pier foundations are supported through shaft resistance, which is the shearing resistance developed along the vertical pier-rock interface, and by end-bearing resistance. The factors which control the load-displacement-time behaviour of socketed pier foundations are the strength and deformation characteristics of: a) the concrete pier, b) the rock mass, and c) the interface between the concrete pier and the rock.

Jan 1, 1987

By Kazuyuki Matsuzawa

A series of plate loading tests were carried out on a loam ground in order to investigate the influences of the plate size and the loading rate on the observed load-settlement relations. Two circular plates having diameters of 0.3 m and 1.0 m were used. Three types of loading methods were employed; 1) static cyclic maintained load test, 2) static continuous load test, and 3) rapid (dynamic) plate load test. An interpretation method called non-linear damping method was used to estimate a static load-settlement relation from the rapid plate load test signals. The derived static load-settlement relations match well with the measured results from the static load tests.

Jan 1, 2006

By A. J. Partos

The figures and tables referred to herein are presented in the Proceedings; Volume I, Pages 309 through 316. The 61-story One Liberty Place, at 315 m., is the tallest building 1n Philadelphia and was in 1987 the ninth tallest building in the world. One Liberty Place is supported on drilled piers socketed in heterogeneous metamorphic rock. Design load distribution was 40% on the base and 60% by shaft resistance. Drilled Pier G-10 supporting a T13-A type outrigger column was instrumented. There 1s no uplift load on the exterior outrigger columns. This column supports a 53,850 kN compressive load which includes a 13,440 kN windload. Table 4 presents experimental parameters from straight line interpolation of Mohr failure envelopes for the Wissahickon schist. Lowest values of cohesion (12,200 kN/m2) and angle of internal friction (19°) are at a 50° - 59° angle of foliation. Figure 3 presents a typical pier supported by shaft resistance 1n decomposed (D) and coreable (C) rock and by end bearing (B).

Jan 1, 1991

By Dan Brown

Two drilled shaft foundations were subjected to axial load tests in order to measure the influence of drilling fluid on performance. Other than the differing drilling fluids, the shafts were constructed with great care to ensure identical conditions. The results indicate superior performance in both side shear and base resistance of the shaft constructed using a polymer over that of the shaft constructed using bentonite drilling slurry.

Jan 1, 2002

By W. G. K. Fleming

The general history of piling is traced up to the present time with regard to the evolution of methods and materials. The processes have been strongly influenced by developments in basic equipment and industrial change. It is noticeable that in the twentieth century more progress has taken place than in the many previous centuries. It has been strongly influenced by the general development of Soil Mechanics. Test loading is probably the most effective way to assess the success of designs and many empirical relationships have been challenged through it. As we approach a new century it appears that it will be an age of rapid equipment development, with much enhancement of understanding of what has been done. Processes of automatic construction and testing will becoming commonplace. These changes will narrow the limits of conventional scatter that have come to be accepted and to a large extent will be driven by political efforts to curtail energy consumption, to raise standards of quality and reliability, and to conserve the environment. 1. Ancient history. Piling is an ancient art. Its first mention in history is from Herodotus, the first person to commit an account of his times to the written word in the years 557 to 479 BC. He evidently had a strong interest in engineering matters because he wrote of building, brick making, reinforced brickwork, river training, canal building, bridge construction, tunnelling and its acoustic detection and piling. The piling reference comes from Book 5 at paragraph 16.

Jan 1, 1999

By D. A. Bruce

To check the feasibility and the quality of a very deep diaphragm wall, a tern of adjacent panels has been constructed, up to a depth of 100 m, in the Milan sandy gravelly soil by means of a hydraulically driven milling machine with reverse circulation of mud. The results of the monitoring carried out in order to evaluate the panel geometry and the quality of both joints and concrete are described. The use of instrumentation based on different physical principles allowed the cross checking of measurements as well as the evaluation of the accuracy and sensitivity of each single procedure to be performed. The trial field was successfully carried out and the feasibility of a diaphragm wall of such a depth was demonstrated and corroborated by a reasonable level of quality control.

Jan 1, 1989

By Claudio Olalla

This paper relates to the foundation of a steel structure located at the San Martin de la Vega (Madrid) amusement park. The structure has more than 100 supports with various loading conditions, including important horizontal and uplift forces. Additionally, the settlement tolerances are very strict. A massive gypsum formation with interbedded clay layers and random solution great voids at various levels constitute the soil. The foundation design has been conditioned large enough these difficulties (load conditions and soil problems). The piling machine used was powerful to drill through the soft rock (UCS up to 11Mpa). The integrity of each pile had to be guaranteed by continuous recording of drilling and concrete pouring parameters. In order to fulfil all those conditions, a STARSOL type-piling rig was used. More than 4500 meters of piles were performed. The diameters of the piles were 450 and 550-mm and their depths varies from 6 to 23 meters. All piles were reinforced over their full length.

Jan 1, 2002

By Philip J. Daynes

As part of the regeneration of the centre of Dublin, a multi-functional development is being constructed on the site of the historic Smithfield Fruit Market. The site is being developed in three phases, and includes one of the deepest basements (10m) constructed in Ireland to date. Until the recent improved economic climate, there has been little requirement for deep basements in Dublin, and this is the first to be constructed entirely within fluvio-glacial gravels and boulders. The difficult ground conditions led to the adoption of a diaphragm wall solution to ensure a watertight construction. Tie-back anchorages are utilised in the temporary case, and the wall is propped by floor slabs in the permanent case. Where required by high bedrock levels, the diaphragm wall is dowelled into limestone bedrock to ensure toe stability. The recorded lateral movement of the wall is significantly below that calculated by numerical analysis. Temporary bentonite cut-off walls were installed to divide the site into discrete sections. The basement was constructed as a tanked structure, and is subject to uplift water pressure. Passive tension minipiles provides an innovative alternative to the standard stressed anchorage solution. This paper describes:- design and construction aspects of the diaphragm wall, tie-back anchorages, and anti-flotation minipiles, together with recorded lateral wall movements,

Jan 1, 2003

By Cory G. Rice

A significant portion of the piling industry has long felt relying on soil setup to gain the required capacity is a complexity that would rather not be dealt with. Instead, the pile are driven to the required capacity on the initial drive and the potential gain of capacity due to soil setup is simply considered an added bonus or safety factor. There appears to be an attitude that if one did not put in the energy required to develop the full capacity on the initial drive, then one should not expect to gain anything from Mother Nature for free. However, substantial savings in time and materials can be realized by properly accounting for setup. This paper will show the impacts and ramifications this rationale can have on required labor and material costs and illustrate a case history with significant soil setup and the savings realized on a project currently being constructed.

Jan 1, 1992

By Juan J. Campo

The Freeport-McMoRan Main Pass Mine development in the Gulf of Mexico is a complex designed to extract up to 67 million long tons of sulphur over a 40 year period. The initial development includes 15 platforms and 13 bridges located in water depths ranging from 208 to 214 feet, approximately 15 miles east of the Mississippi River Delta. Three additional platforms were designed and installed for the oil and gas development in the complex. Over 110, 000 short tons of steel were required to fabricate the structures. As the sulphur is extracted significant subsidence is predicted over a major portion of complex in the shape of a very large bowl. Vertical elevations are predicted to change as much as 65 feet. Horizontal movements and mudline slope changes cause adjacent platform decks to move as much as 30 feet relative to each other. Differential soil movement is predicted between piling of individual platforms causing the piling to spread, resulting in significant lateral loading on the piling. Relative vertical soil movements are predicted along the lengths of the piles which causes "up drag" or "down drag" forces on individual piles. This paper addresses the design of the piling for the structures in the complex. Design criteria will be discussed explaining how the more traditional offshore environmental and gravity loadings were combined with the unique loading caused by subsidence. Design and analysis procedures will be explained and analysis results presented. These results include the incorporation of 100 ksi steel in thicknesses up to 5 inches in some of the tubular piles. Comparisons will be made between conventional offshore structures and these structures designed to accommodate the subsidence.

Jan 1, 1992

By J. Nakayama

For installation of round steel piles or cast-in-place pile construction through boulder contained ground or rocky formation, usual system does not function properly or impossible to work. This paper introduces an installation system which combines unique mechanism where the drill is installed on the top of a driving round steel pile or a stand pipe which is initially driven into the overburden to the depth of self-standing. When the pile driving or bore hole drilling encounters hard strata or boulder contained ground, hard material shall be crushed by the down-the-hole chiselling operated in adjustable short stroke and high frequency of blows while cuttings are discharged in reverse circulation through central reverse pipe while round steel pile is simultaneously stroked by a hydraulic hammer. The paper shall explain the mechanism of the system and introduces construction examples for bridge foundation and piled jetty.

Jan 1, 1999