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By J. M. Hassler

Nowhere can there be found a more misleading statement than the old one that "Iron can be manufactured cheaper in the South." During the past decade ironmakers and users of iron have heard varied and sundry stories of the wonderful resources of the Birmingham district, including abundant ore and coal fields, cheap labor, a wonderful climate and similar industrial Utopian statements. Birmingham represents the major portion of the iron business in the South, and as Birmingham fares so goes the iron business of the South. The intent of this paper is to shed some light on the actual conditions surrounding ironmaking in the South, especially in the Birmingham, or North Alabama, district. By a presentation of facts it is desired to point out that the "cheap iron" of the industrial South is a thing of the past, primarily because of increased labor cost and because labor is radically different in performance to what it was years ago. Also, because most of the raw materials needed in ironmaking that would be classed better than inferior are gone. Important Factors The several important factors that have been responsible for this change are : 1. Shrinkage of the iron business in the South. 2. Increased labor cost. 3. The development of the South, with an industrial trend, without a substantial increase of its own iron-consuming market. 4. Increased freight rates, which has narrowed the market that might be reached from this district. 5. Depletion of the better grades of raw materials, both ore and coal. Shrinkage of Iron Business in South.—Table 1 was prepared in early 1936 and revised in 1937, of blast-furnace units in the North Alabama district, considering the year 1936 compared with a maximum number of furnace units of previous years, the peak point being very near the year

Jan 1, 1937

By E. C. Harder

CERTAIN typical characteristics of bauxites, ores of aluminum permit their classification into a number of categories, each of which has special features that enable grouping within it deposits from widely scattered bauxite fields. There may be local variations in conditions that have introduced differences of lesser importance between similar deposits in different fields, resulting perhaps from the influence of factors other than those that have produced the distinguishing features of each of the different groups, but in general the similarity between the deposits in each group is sufficiently striking to make the grouping indicated of interest. Several factors and conditions enter into the decomposition process that results in the development of bauxites and laterites and affects their character. The principal conditions favoring optimum bauxitization are: (1) pres- ence of rocks with easily soluble minerals yielding residues rich in alumina; (2) effective rock porosity, enabling easy access and free circulation of water; (3) normal to abundant rainfall alternating with dry periods; (4) vegetation, including bacteria, advantageously distributed; (5) available sources of appropriate solution and precipitation agencies; (6) a tropical or at least a warm climate; (7) low to moderate topographic relief, allowing free movement of the water table but a minimum of erosion; and (8) long quiet periods in earth history. Assuming that all of these factors are operating to a greater or less degree, it seems that the one that affects most the physical character of the resulting bauxite or laterite deposits is the chemical and mineralogical composition of the rocks that by their decay yield the bauxite deposits. This factor is used in the classification followed in this paper. In the process of weathering of ordinary silicate and carbonate rocks of the earth's crust, whether of igneous or sedimentary origin, it is the minerals of the alkalies that yield most readily to attack. The alkaline earth compounds also offer no great resistance, particularly the carbonates. Thus, among the rock-forming elements, those producing the most insoluble compounds are aluminum, iron, and silicon, together with certain ones of less importance, such as titanium, manganese, and phosphorus. In normal weathering processes such as prevail in temperate regions, the common minerals of rock decay are

Jan 1, 1952

By Neil Donnell, O&apos

MODERN mine maps are largely a product of evolution. The first mine maps used in the west were old composite maps with all the levels plotted on the same sheet. The composite was widely used and occasionally is seen even now. This type of underground map had serious limitations. One was the development of an indecipherable complex of workings around steep shafts. The other limitation was that of size; often when a working passed the limit of the sheet no map was made of it. These old maps have been superseded by the single level maps, laid out in squares or rectangles which can be expanded indefinitely in all directions. This produces a system capable of unlimited expansion in three dimensions, with all the detail of every working clearly marked and legible. A good set of mine maps should be laid out in blocks, all blocks of equal size. Each block should be limited by plane coordinates without overlap on bounding map quadrangles. At all times the direction of North should be indicated as an aid in remembering bearings of underground workings. It is desirable that all maps of whatever scale be plotted on sheets of uniform size. In fact, it is possible to make nearly all underground maps, surface maps and sections on sheets of the same size.

Jan 9, 1950

By Arthur F. Wendt

Introduction.—In the year 1885, the writer signed a contract to take charge of the reopening and developing of the celebrated old mines of " El Cerro Rico de Potosi." Two years earlier, an Eng- . lish firm of engineers had made a very glowing report on the property. In the summer of 1885, telegrams arrived from the parties in charge of operations at the mountain, claiming the finding of one of the old veins, with an average richness of over 200 ounces to the ton. In the fall of 1886, the author first personally visited Potosi, but found neither the English report nor the telegram borne out by the facts. After an expenditure of over half a million of dollars and more than three years of continuons hard work, the writer succeeded in unwatering and developing one of the principal old veins of the mountain. This vein, called "Cotamitos," now yields ores of about 75 ounces to the ton, and the old historic mountains of Potosi may be said to have again fairly entered the list of silver-producers. The experience of the author, during his residence in Bolivia, and data obtained from Sr. Don F. Avelino Aramayo, form the basis of this description. POTOSI. Etymology of the Name.—The Quichuá (pronounced Keechna) Indians, known to North American students as the " Incas," although the word "inca" merely signifies ''king," or "chief," of the Quichuás, called the mountain "Sumac-orcko," or the beautiful mountain." Eighty-three years before the discovery of the mountain by the Spaniards, the inca, or king, Huaina Ccapac, travelling from Cantumarca to Calque-Porco, saw the mountain of Potosf and, admiring its grandeur and beauty, said that within its bowels there was, no doubt, much silver. He ordered his vassal* to work the mines. They, having carried their mining implements to the mountain, ascended it and were on the point of commencing work, when they heard a voice of thunder, which said: " Do not take

Jan 1, 1891

By A. B. Wilder

We study the past Because it is a guide to the present and a promise for the future. The struggle for a better world is strengthened By the hopes, ambitions, and deeds Of those who were before us. As we look backward Our attention is directed forward. ONE hundred years ago, the manufacture of steel from molten pig iron without the use of fuel first began. In the earlier part of the nineteenth century the crucible process was the principal steelmaking method. It was a costly process, producing only a few pounds of steel at a time; so, most of the ferrous metal output was in the form of wrought or pig iron. With the perfection of the converter technique it became possible to produce low cost steel by the ton, thereby completely changing the structure, not only of the ferrous metal industry, but also of industrial production in general. This was the turning point from the Iron Age to the Age of Steel. William Kelly (Fig. 2), Sir Henry Bessemer (Fig. 1), and Joseph G. Martien experimented with the process before 1856. William Kelly began in Eddyville, Ky., in 1847 and has been given credit for first discovering the principle of the pneumatic converter process. Several years later in England Henry Bessemer independently conceived a steelmaking process similar to Kelly's. Bessemer made public his invention at the annual meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held at Cheltenham, England, August 1856. As a result of his paper, "On the Manufacture of Malleable Iron and Steel Without Fuel," and his progressive leadership in the years to follow, the process became permanently identified with the name, Bessemer. Credit for the commercial adaptation of the process must be given two additional persons. Robert Mushet (Fig. 3) in 1856 in England recognized the necessity of deoxidation and recarburization of the converter product and evolved the technique for adding high manganese iron following the blow. In Sweden, in July 1858, G_ F. Göranson [ ]

Jan 1, 1961

By H. R. Shidel

This paper summarizes the results obtained from the preliminary cementing of wells in an effort to cut off the bottom water. The object of this work was two-fold: (1) To prevent the oil sand from becoming flooded. (2) To plug off bottom water, thereby preserving the individual well and reclaiming production. Valuable suggestions and help have been given by the following named: Messrs. Kyle and La Velle, of the U. 8. Bureau of Mines; Magnolia Petroleum -Co.; Freed Oil and Gas Co. The cementing work was carried out under the personal supervision of L. J. Snyder. In an unpublished paper on the "Water Problem in the Augusta Field," 5. K. Clark reaches the following conclusions: (1) That the great amount of water present is bottom water, occurring in the Varner sand, the main producing or the 2500-ft. horizon, (2) That the only striking connection between structure and water is in .the area of the marked fault on the Ralston, E. C. Varner, and F. Varner leases in sections 8, 9, 16 and 17. (3) That the oil occurs in porous streaks, generally separated by finegrained, well cemented sand, which is barren. Possibly two or three such pay streaks may be found. That under a pay, fine-grained sand occurs, which is presumably barren at the time of drilling, but soon reveals water. The writer takes partial exception to the last point, because well defined shale, slate, lime, or hard sand breaks have been encountered in a great many cases, separating the pay streaks under which water is often found. This is not an invariable occurrence, as cases have been noted when the oil has been followed immediately by water in the same stratum. In an effort to overcome the water menace, the following methods of plugging were tried: (1) Plugging with wood, lead, and limit plugs. (2) Plugging with sand pumpings.

Jan 1, 1920

By George Smith

The Australian Broken Hill Consols mine is situated within a third of a mile eastwards of the famous Broken Rill Proprietory mine; but, so far as has yet been proved, the respective lodes have no connection whatever. The Proprietory line of lode, striking N.E. and S.W., is coincident with the bedding-planes of the inclosing gneiss, and, according to Mr. E. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M., government geologist, is undonbtedly a saddle-formation. This opinion, which met with much opposition at the time it was advanced, is now, I understand, being generally confirmed as the work of development opens out fresh areas for observation along the line of lode. The lode is of immense thickness—in places over 300 feet and though it has been found to contain sufficient quantities of secondary silver compounds to yield phenomenal outputs of silver, its principal constituents are various lead and other ores, and it would appear more correct to regard it as an argentiferous lead-deposit than as a silver-lode proper. The Consols lode differs from its gigantic neighbor in every respect. With an average thickness of not more than 18 inches, it has been worked along its course for upwards of 1300 feet, and at every point yet explored has been found remarkably well-defined and persistent. With a strike E. and W., it cuts obliquely across the bedding of gneiss and schist, continuing uninterruptedly through various bands of eruptive amphibolite. The dip, which is to the south, ranges from 24 near the surface to nearly vertical in the lower levels; but the alteration is not regular, as in places the lode is almost flat, and this at a vertical depth of over 300 feet. These changes of inclination have had no effect on the ore-deposits, which, as I shall endeavor to show, have been governed entirely by " cross-

Jan 1, 1897

By D. R. de Fontaine

By computing the values of the resolved shear stress for a great many orientations of the tensile axis on all 12 (111) <110> slip systems, Taylor and Elam&apos; were able to map out a stereogram of slip systems, given here, Fig. 1, in Diehl&apos;s notation (see, for example Hauser and Jackson&apos;). The purpose of the present note is to derive such a stereogram by mathematical reasoning and to give a simple method of defining the system with highest resolved shear stress for any direction of the tensile axis, thereby eliminating tedious computation of the Schmid factor. Let the tensile axis, of direction cosines [xyz], make the angles 0 and relative to the slip plane normal [HKL] and the slip direction [hkl] respectively. Fig. 2 shows a simple cubic cell whose edges define a Cartesian coordinate system. Let A be a unit vector of origin 0 supported by the tensile axis. Its end point [xyz] then lies on a sphere of unit radius, on the positive hemisphere of which the planes z = 0, x = y, y = z limit the so called primitive triangle of a standard [loo] stereographic projection. For any point of this triangle, the following hold: 0«2 «y *sx « 1 [l] Now, for given [xpz], the most highly stressed system will be the one for which the following expression of the Schmid factor has the largest possible value: (HKL) belonging to the form (111) and [hkl] to the form <110>, the denominator on the right hand side of Eq. [2] is equal to 1.fi.a. The unknowns H, ... h, . . . can now be determined by correctly distributing +1 and -1 to H, K, L, and +1, -1,O to h,k, 1 giving the numerator of Eq. [2] its greatest positive value (the angles 0 and cpare chosen acute) subject to the condition: Hh+Kk+Ll = 0 [3] since the slip direction must lie in the slip plane. Condition [3] can be satisfied only by having one of its terms vanish and the other two equal to +1 and -1. Taking the case of the tensile axis lying in the primitive triangle, x2y, z and therefore Hh will be chosen equal to +1 with H = h = +1 in order to retain a maximum of + signs. There remain two alternatives: either 1 = 0 or k = 0. 1) take 2 = 0 Then Kk = -1 and the numerator of [2] becomes: Retaining a maximum of + signs gives L = k = +1 and becomes: 2) take k = 0 Then L1 = -1and, likewise, the numerator of [2] becomes: xz - z2 + xy + yz [5] But the difference [5] - [4] can be written: (y - z)(x+y +z) [6] positive or zero by virtue of [I]. If [6] is positive (y > z), then the largest possible value for the numerator of [2] for any xyz inside the primitive triangle is given by [5], i.e., for: That is to say, the active slip system corresponding to an orientat:~on of the tensile axis inside the primitive triangle is:

Jan 1, 1962

By Noel H. Stearn

OF the many instruments devised for the measurement of magnetic anomalies, the ordinary dip needle, by virtue of its superior simplicity of construction, facility of manipulation, and definiteness of interpretation, seems to merit serious attention as the instrument most readily applicable to the detection of magnetic anomalies of the higher order of magnitude. In spite of the fact that it has been used for many years for the discovery of iron ore in Europe and in the Lake Superior region of America, its capabilities as a geological instrument have not yet been thoroughly plumbed. The Wisconsin Geological Survey, under Dr. W. 0. Hotchkiss, E. F. Bean, and H. R. Aldrich, has been most thorough in developing the technique of the instrument, and the results it has obtained have aroused a general interest in a more widespread use of geomagnetics as an exploration method and the dip needle as a geological instrument. The simplicity of the instrument is an especial advantage, as it can be used by anyone, regardless of his technical training; but to insure useful results not only is a knowledge of the background of geomagnetics necessary but also an understanding of the principles of the instrument itself. Principles of the Dip Needle The major feature of the dip needle is an elongated magnet suspended with fixed bearings in such a way that it can move in a single plane. If the point of suspension were exactly at the center of gravity of the magnet, the instrument would be identical with the "dip circle" or "dipping needle" of terrestrial magneticists, and as such could be used to determine variations in the inclination of the earth&apos;s magnetic field when observed in the plane of the magnetic meridian. The dip needle, however, differs from the "dip circle" or "dipping needle" in having an adjustable counterweight affixed to one end of the magnet. This counterweight serves to balance the magnet at an angle to the inclination of the earth&apos;s field when the instrument is oriented in the plane of magnetic

Jan 1, 1929

I would like to congratulate the authors on an interesting paper and, in particular, on their justification of the use of superposition in treating gas wells. They state, however, that no theory has previously been developed lor treating the variable rate drawdown case. In a paper published a few years ago by my colleagues and myself, a method is described which allows a constant rate drawdown curve to be derived for any well. regardless of real rate variations. This method has the great advantage that it is not necessary to make any assumptions regarding the form or uniformity of the reservoir, and the derivation suggested by the present authors is simply an idealized case of our more general treatment. In the light of several years&apos; experience in the derivation of constant rate drawdown curves: I would like to point out that the method proposed by Odeh and Jones may lead to confusing answers, particularly if applied over an appreciable time interval. The reason is that, if pressures are measured when a well is flowing, non-linearities in plots like Figs. 1 and 2 can arise due to either (1) changes in the skin factor with time and/or flow rate, or (2) an inhomogeneous reservoir. Separation of these two effects is only possible if some of the pressures used in the analysis are measured when the well flow rate is 0 or, in other words. during brief shut-in periods. REFERENCES 1. Arthur, K. B.. Metunomski, Z. G. and Ruche, Ms "Intetet ct methode d&apos;utilisa tion des mesures de pression [)our Petude des gisemonts" Revue de T&apos;I.F.P. (Nov., 1962) XVII, 1299. 2. Thomere, R. and Arthur, K. R.: "Analysis of the Pressure Bet~avior of a Production Well Subject to Interterence and Its Application to Reservoir Models", Paper SPE 1189 presented at SPE :Amund Fall Mecting Ireld in Denwer, Colo. (Oct. 3-6, 1965).

Jan 1, 1966

By H. R. Shidel

THIS paper summarizes the results obtained from the preliminary cementing of wells in an effort to cut off the bottom water. The object of this work was two-fold: (1) To prevent the oil sand from becoming flooded. (2) To plug off bottom water, thereby preserving the individual well and reclaiming production. Valuable suggestions and help have been given by the following named: Messrs. Kyle and La Velle, of the U. S. Bureau of Mines; Magnolia Petroleum Co.; Freed Oil and Gas Co. The cementing work was carried out under the personal supervision of L. J. Snyder. In an unpublished paper on the "Water Problem in the Augusta Field," S. K. Clark reaches the following conclusions: (1) That the great amount of water present is bottom water, occurring in the Varner sand, the main producing or the 2500-ft. horizon. (2) That the only striking connection between structure and water is in the area of the marked fault on the Ralston, E. C. Varner, and F. Varner leases in sections 8, 9, 16 and 17. (3) That the oil occurs in porous streaks, generally separated by fine-grained, well cemented sand, which is barren. Possibly two, or three such pay streaks may be found. That under a pay, fine-grained sand occurs, which is presumably barren at the time of drilling, but soon reveals water. The writer takes partial exception to the last point, because well defined shale, slate, lime, or hard sand breaks have been encountered in a great many cases, separating the pay streaks under which water is often found. This is not an invariable occurrence, as cases have been noted when the oil has been followed immediately by water in the same stratum. In an effort to overcome the water menace, the following methods of plugging were tried: (1) Plugging with wood, lead, and limit plugs. (2) Plugging with sand pumpings.

Jan 10, 1918

By N. K. Chen, R. Maddin

Single crystals of molybdenum were extended at temperatures from 1300° to 2500°C. It was found that with increasing temperatures, the yield becomes more pronounced and the number of slip bands for equal amounts of elongation decreases. Slip at high temperatures fragments the structure. OTHER than the investigations on sodium and potassium by Andrade and Tsien,&apos; the researches of Steijn and Brick&apos; on a iron single crystals at low temperatures are about the only studies of the influence of temperature on glide of body-centered cubic single crystals. The effect of test temperature on glide has been rather widely investigated with hexagonal crystals" and less widely with face-centered cubic crystals. ~~ a result of these studies it can be said that, in general, the onset of plastic flow as measured by the initial rate of strain hardening becomes more abrupt with increasing temperature, and the value of the yield decreases with increasing temperature. Strain hardening, however, is markedly affected by changes in temperature except at very low and very high temperatures where the strain hardening rate becames constant. In the present investigation it is shown that temperature affects the glide of molybdenum single crystals in much the same manner as crystals of other classes, it., for comparable strains the number of slip bands decreases with increasing temperature; shear along the slip bands increases with increasing temperature; the yield becomes more pronounced with increasing temperature of test; and the strain hardening approaches a constant at very high temperatures. In addition, it is shown that, in agreement with the work of Tsien and Chow, Qlip occurs on (110) planes in <Ill> directions. It is further shown that slip at high temperatures fragments the structure into either irregular sized cells or bent atomic planes which are roughly aligned in crystallographic directions. Experimental Procedure Single crystals 3 mm in diameter by about 25 mm long were prepared using the technique previously described.&apos; The furnace in which the crystals were grown served as the extension apparatus for the tension tests. It consisted of a 4 in. water-cooled brass tube 20 in. long which was continuously evacuated at the bottom. Two water-cooled copper electrodes held the specimen by means of spherical collets secured in place in the electrodes by set screws. These electrodes served also to transmit power and stress to the specimen. The lower electrode was clamped to a stand, while the upper electrode was fastened to one side of a lever arm flexibly supported at the top through a slightly offset pinion. A metal bellows operating elastically was attached to the upper electrode to affect a vacuum seal and allow freedom of motion. The level of the arm was adjusted by rotating a graduated nut. Rotation of the electrode was prevented by a key fitted into a groove. After the specimen was mounted and the vacuum secured, the lever arm was adjusted so that the bellows was at its relaxed position. This insured that the total weight of the specimen, the upper electrode, and the downpull of the vacuum were balanced by the horizontal beam. Since the specimen was heated by its own resistance, expansion of the specimen proceeded freely by this arrangement. During the time of heating the specimen, the beam was maintained in a horizontal position by turning the nut at the top. By graduating the lever arm and using a known dead weight on the lever arm to supply a tensile stress, the graduated nut could be read to 0.0001 in. extension. Since

Jan 1, 1955

By A. U. Seybol

Eight binary iron alloys were examined after ion nitriding experiments to determine the behavior of the following elements: Al, Mo, Mn, Si, Ti, V,Cr, and C. Only Al, Cr, Ti, and V additions caused hardening in binary iron alloys. A few steels were examined to see the effect of Cr, Cr + Al, Cr + Ti, and Cr + V. It is suggested that a useful new class of ni-triding grade steels might be those containing about I pct V. The nitriding of steel, first described by Fry1 about 45 years ago, rapidly attained commercial application with very little knowledge of the fundamentals involved. While Fry,&apos; in describing the status of nitriding in 1932, apparently correctly postulated hardening by precipitated nitrides, the details of the nitriding process were not understood, nor has the situation changed much since that time. It is also interesting to note that the compositions of some typical nitriding steels given by Fry at that time have changed little in the intervening years. Currently used nitriding steels owe their surface hardening to either chromium (as in 4340 steel) or aluminum plus chromium as in the Nitralloy grades, where both CrN and AlN appear to contribute to harden ing. Titanium additions have been studied experimentally, but thus far titanium steels have not won wide commercial acceptance. This subject will be expanded later. The orthodox ammonia nitriding process has been reviewed very adequately many times as in Jenkins3 and Case and VanHorn,4 and their is no need to outline the process here. Ion nitriding is not as well-known, although there have been several descriptions5-9 of the process given, sometimes with comparisons with the ammonia process. Most of these papers are primarily concerned with a description of the equipment, or of the physics or electrical engineering aspects of ion nitriding, but Noren and Kindbom9 gave the results of a metallurgical investigation using both processes. In brief, ion nitriding is carried out in a vacuum chamber from which the air is exhausted and replaced by a N2-H2 mixture, typically containing 10 to 20 pct N2, at about 5 to 10 torr pressure. While ammonia gas has also been used in ion nitriding, there is no evidence that ammonia makes any improvement in the ion nitriding process. A few hundred volts dc is applied between the grounded container wall (positive) and an insulated center post supporting the work (negative) to be nitrided. A glow discharge is created in the ionized gas, accelerating positive nitrogen ions to the work. These ions contain enough energy to form the normally unstable Fe4N "white layer", thus establish- ing surface nitrogen solubility characteristic of the a Fe/Fe4N equilibrium. This creates a substantial concentration gradient, driving dissolved nitrogen into the steel. The temperature employed is in the same range (around 500" to 550°C) as in ammonia nitriding, but because of factors which are not understood at present the nitriding time is ordinarily considerably reduced in ion nitriding. Other advantages have been cited,9 but it is not the purpose of the present work to contrast the two processes. The present objective was to examine the behavior of binary iron alloys during ion nitriding with respect to the microstructure, hardness level, and depth, and to examine some of these factors in steels as well. In this way it was hoped to be able to find out something about the individual role of these elements in steels. While all the work was done by ion nitriding, there seems to be no reason why any conclusions reached would not equally apply to ammonia nitriding, excepting only the kinetic aspects of the process. Another objective was an exploration of the critical-ity of the ion nitriding variables: gas composition, pressure, temperature, and time. EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS The equipment used was substantially as described by Jones and Martin.8 The vacuum tank was about 12 in. in diam by about 18 in. high, and consisted of water-cooled stainless steel, with a single small window at the top for viewing inside. This sat on a heavy mild steel base equipped with the main pumping port, pressure control port, and vacuum gaging. A series of variable resistances was interposed between the glow discharge and a large-capacity -40 amp variable primary transformer feeding a 1000-v transformer, but 600 v were about the maximum ordinarily used. With the small l-in.-round, 4-in.-thick discs used for nitriding, the electrical load was usually about 500 v at 0.8 amp. The specimen temperature was controlled by a stainless-steel sheathed chromel-alumel couple, whose junction was in the steel stool upon which the flat discs were placed. These were ground through 400 Sic paper. Cycling of the temperature controller caused -0.2 amp variation in ion current, providing an ample control band. The binary iron alloys were made from vacuum-melted hydrogen-deoxidized electrolytic iron and alloys of 99.9 pct purity. Cast ll-lb-square tapered ingots were forged and hot-rolled to about 11/4-in.-diam rounds. Discs of 1/4 in. thickness by about 1 in. diam were machined from the rods for nitriding specimens. The following alloys were prepared: 1 pct each of Mn, Mo, Cr, Ti, Al, V, Si, and an Fe-0.8 pct C alloy. EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES Of the variables total gas pressure, nitrogen partial pressure, temperature, and time, only nitrogen partial pressure was found to be critical to the operation. A critical nitrogen partial pressure was found corre-

Jan 1, 1970

By Robert Uhley, Tsvi Meidav, L. Scharon

Before National Lead built an industrial plant on its Fredricktown property, some 100 miles south of St. Louis, a 750x500-ft area on the proposed site was investigated by electrical resistivity, seismic refraction, and churn drilling. Data were accumulated to prepare an isopach map of the overburden and to determine soundness of the dolomite bedrock and the depth to bedrock at fixed points. The site was on a gently sloping hillside. Elevations above sea level ranged from 760 ft in the northwest corner to 820 ft along the eastern edge, giving a total relief of 60 ft. There were no major drainage features, but in the northern part of the plant site there was an indicated depression area which later was interpreted as reflecting subsurface conditions in the bedrock. No rock was exposed in the entire plant site area; the surface was characterized by soil and overburden. GEOLOGY Prevailing geology in the area of investigation was relatively simple—Bonneterre dolomite overlain by residuum. The red overburden was that derived from the weathered Bonneterre. Some chert was present, interpreted in the general area as a weathering of both the Bonneterre dolomite and younger sedimentary rocks such as the Potosi dolomite. During the period of actual measurements the residuum varied from moist near surface on the western edge of the proposed site to dry near surface on the eastern edge, and for this reason overburden resistivities ranged from low on the west to high on the east. Seismic velocities were low, since the material was not well packed. The bedrock encountered was dolomite, specifically the Bonneterre of Upper Cambrian age which, according to McQueen,&apos; consists of an upper dark gray member and a lower light gray member. These have been further divided into four zones, in ascending sequence a dark gray, sandy argillaceous dolomite; a dark brown or black, fine-grained dolomite: a light gray, finely crystalline, compact dolomite; and, at the top, a dark brown, finely crystalline, compact dolomite. In the area of investigation the upper two zones were encountered in the drilling tests as constituting the bedrock. The dolomite varies widely in porosity, which is low in the dense, fine-grained layers. In this area, therefore, both electrical resistivities and seismic velocities were high. Fracture zones in the Bonneterre are nearly Geology, and may extend to some depth, causing considerable deep weathering. It was realized that over deep fracturing the apparent resistivities

Jan 1, 1960

By R. E. H. Pomeroy

Early in 1917, it became evident, owing to existing and pending market conditions, that a substitute for crude petroleum must be found for firing the smelter furnaces. After a review of the plants then existing, it was deemed advisable to depart from their practice and to adopt the following described system of distributing pulverized coal to the furnaces. The principal advantages of the proposed system, which influenced this decision, were: (I) Equal safety; no pulverized coal is stored at the furnaces; (2) greater ease of operation, furnace fires being controlled by regulating valves in burner branches, as in gas firing; (3) better organization; all machinery, including pulverized coal feed, is under one roof, and the organization is separate from the furnace department; (4) greater cleanliness; all machinery is under vacuum; (5) greater flexibility of application, the coal and air mixture can be piped where needcd. The design of the plant is the result of the combined efforts of the local engineering staff and of the machinery manufacturers. Many new features were embodied in this design to insure greater safety, cleanliness, and efficiency of handling. After 14 months of continuous operation, the plant has proved entirely satisfactory. The building is of structural steel, covered with corrugated steel, with many windows and is painted light gray inside and out. The building floor is of concrete with ample drains to the sewer, and the building is equipped with fire and service water piping. Fig. 1 shows the east side of the building and the incline conveyor from the raw-coal bins. The plant is operated entirely by electric power. All alternating current is 550 volts, 3-phase, 60 cycles. The pulverized-coal feeding niotors and control mechanism are operated by 220-volt direct current supplied by motor-generator sets in the building. Autamatic push-

Jan 1, 1921

By R. I. Jaffee, F. C. Holden, H. R. Ogden

Ti-Mn alloys were studied in order to determine the factors affecting the mechanical properties of &stabilized titanium alloys. The principal compositional factors have been found to be solid-solution strengthening, the martensitic transformation, and instability of the P phase. Structural factors, such as grain size and shape, were found to have more influence on ductility and toughness than on strength. THE alloys of titanium with the &stabilizing elements offer the chief hope for developing useful heat treatments. Conversely, the heat-treatment response possible with the p-stabilizing elements causes difficulties such as weld embrittlement and thermal instability during service at elevated temperature. Therefore, it is of considerable technical importance to understand the factors that govern the heat-treatment responses in these alloys, so as to be able to soften the alloys if they are embrittled by an adventitious heat treatment, to render them stable in service, or to harden them while maintaining adequate ductility and toughness. The Ti-Mn system is a good example with which to demonstrate the factors that govern strength and heat-treatment response in. a P-stabilized system. The region of the a-j3 transformation, after the work of Maykuth, Ogden, and Jaffee,&apos; is shown in Fig. 1. The a solubilities are low. This means that, in the two-phase a-p field, partition of manganese between the two phases occurs practically only to the P phase. The solid-solution effects are therefore chiefly the result of solution in the ,8 phase. The eutectoid occurs at 20 pct Mn and 550°C, and proceeds very sluggishly. It can be ignored in heat treatments in hypo-eutectoid alloys, except for long-time storage at low temperatures below the eutectoid temperature. Even here, there is some question that diffusion proceeds far enough to involve eutectoid decomposition. Three compositional factors bear on the mechanical properties and structure of titanium a-P alloys. These are: 1—solid-solution strengthening, 2—mar-tensite transformation, and 3—P instability. Combined with the purely structural factors of grain size and shape, these govern the properties of the alloys. Perhaps the most important factor is solid-solution strengthening. The facts that manganese dissolves in a titanium to a maximum of only 0.5 pct and most of the manganese partitions to the p phase dominate the structure and properties of the a-/3 alloys. Because of the overwhelming preference of manganese for the ,3 phase, the P phase is harder and the a phase is softer. The relative amounts of both phases may be modified by heat treatment in the a-P field as application of the lever rule in the two-phase field clearly shows. A critical temperature in the Ti-Mn diagram is 800°C. This is the P transus temperature of the 6.4 pct Mn alloy, which has the lowest manganese content which will form all retained-P phase on quenching to room temperature. Any quench performed from below 800°C will produce a structure consisting of only a, a plus retained P, or retained p, for alloys of the compositions used in this work. For alloys containing less than 6.4 pct Mn, any quench from above 800°C will always result in structures

Jan 1, 1955

Foreword—H. Foster Bain........................ 7 Officers and Committees......................... 9 PAPERS Growth of Metallic Crystals. By C. H. Desch...............13 Aluminum Castings of High Strength. By R. S. Archer and Zay .Teffries (With Discussion).............................35 Constitution of Alloys of Aluminum, Zinc and Tin and Aluminum, Zinc and Cadmium. By V. Jares.......................65 Exudations on Brass and Bronze. By W. B. Price and A. J. Phillips (With Discussion)..................•..........80 Preparation of Metallic Single Crystals and Twinning in Zinc and Zinc Single Crystals. By 0. E. Romig (With Discussion).............90 Plastic Deformation of a Zinc Single Crystal. By S. L. Hoyt (With Discussion) 116 Plastic Deformation of Coarse-grained Zinc. By C. H. Mathewson and A. J. Phillips (With Discussion)......................143 The Solidus Line in the Lead-antimony System. By E. E. Schumacher and F. C. Nix (With Discussion)........................195 Note on the Distribution of Energy in Worked Metals and the Effect of Process Annealing Temperature on the Final Annealing Temperature of Fine Copper Wire. By L. Zickrick and R. S. Dean (With Discussion)........207 Note on the Relation of Annealing Temperature to Conductivity of Copper Wire. Ry J. C. Bradley (With Discussion)..................210 Beryllium-copper Alloys. By W. H. Bassett (With Discussion)........218 Some Comparative Properties of Tough Pitch and Phosphorized Copper. By W. R. Webster, J. L. Christie and R. S. Pratt (With Discussion).....233 A Study of the 470" C. Transition Point in Cast 60:40 Brass. By Frances Hurd Clark (With Discussion).......................253 Strldy of the Heat Treatment, Microstructure and Hardness of 60:40 Brass. By Frances Hurd Clark (With Discussion)...............276 Corrosion and Physical Properties of Some Alloys of Aluminurn, Zinc and Tin. By N. 0. Taylor (With Discussion)..................302 Equilibrium Relations in Al-Mn Alloys of High Purity. By E. H. Dix, Jr., and W. D. Iieith (With Discussion)....................315 Deformation of an Aluminum Alloy by a Constant Load. By C. B. Sadtler and J. L. Gregg (With Discussion)....................336 Still Casting of Metals. By P. H. G. Durville (With Discussion).......343

Jan 1, 1927

By Robert Glass Cleland

FROM the time of its organization down to 1917, a period of more than eighty years, Phelps, Dodge & Co. was seldom involved in what could be called a major labor difficulty. Behind this remarkable record lay both a philosophy and its practical application. The philosophy was an attitude toward society called the Golden Rule. That philosophy had been a living principle in the lives of the founders of the company, Anson Phelps, Daniel James, and William E. Dodge. Their successors, William E. Dodge, Jr., and Daniel Willis James, accepted the same philosophy. Dr. James Douglas governed his life by it. All of these men and their families had given tangible expression to that conviction in benefactions of great magnitude and variety-churches, hospitals, educational institutions, libraries, missionary undertakings, and other organizations for human betterment, such as the Young Men&apos;s and Young Women&apos;s Christian Associations, and the development of model communities about their mills and factories. According to the best standards of their generation, they had sought to improve the condition of labor,

Jan 1, 1952

By C. M. Young

BITUMINOUS coal piled in heaps or bins frequently undergoes a process of spontaneous heating as the result of the absorption of oxygen. It seems probable that the first absorption of oxygen by coal which has not previously been exposed to the air may occur as a condensation or a combination of oxygen in some form which does not result in the production of carbon dioxide, but slow combustion soon begins. The absorption of oxygen is accompanied by an increase of temperature, and this by in increased rapidity of absorption; hence the dangerous condition proceeds from bad to worse, until the kindling point is reached, unless the process is interrupted. A dangerous rise of temperature can be prevented by excluding oxygen, by increasing the bulk of coal in proportion to its surface exposed, or by circulating enough air to dissipate the heat produced. The storage of coal, in practice, varies from almost complete exclusion of oxygen, by storing under water, to such freedom of access as exists when the coal is stored in open piles. Oxygen available for absorption by coal is supplied by the air in the interstices between lumps and by additional air which may enter the pile through circulation. The size, of the coal largely affects both of these supplies; for if the fragments a re small the spaces between them constitute a small percentage of the total volume, and little oxygen will be available unless the circulation of air brings in a fresh supply, while with large fragments the percentage is relatively large; circulation also is much easier through a pile of coarse lumps. In the case f lump coal, although a large amount of air may be present, the exposed surface is comparatively small and there is little opportunity for the absorption of oxygen to so rapid as to cause dangerous heating. Attempts have been made to prevent heating by allowing a sufficient circulation of air to carry off the heat generated; obviously this method cannot be applied to fine sizes nor mixed sizes.

Jan 2, 1918

By C. E. Sims

In some experimental work conducted several years ago, it was noted that sulphur seemed to have a distinct influence on grain size of carbon steels. 111 order to check this observation, a series of S..A.E. 1040 steels was made with the normal composition held as nearly constant as possible. The steels were made with three sulphur levels, which were 0.012, 0.024 and 0.038 per cent sulphur, respectively. For each of the sulphur levels, steels were made with only silicon deoxidization and with aluminum additions of 0.1015, 0.025, 0.050 and 0.10 per cent. The melting medium was an acid-lined high-frequency induction furnace. These steels were forged and rolled and differentiall!. quenched from temperaturcs in the range of 1500O to 1800°F. After this, the A.S.T.M. grain size was determined and plotted as in Fig. I. It will be noted, first of all, that the aluminum-free steels had filler grain size with higher sulphur when heated to 1500, but that this condition was reversed at 1700°. When aluminum was added to produce fine grain size, the steels in the lowest sulphur level were fine-grained only to 1600°. and then only with an addition of one pound of aluminum per ton. The medium sulphur steels werc fine-grained to 1600&apos; with a wider range of aluminum addition. The steels in the highest sulphur level were fine-grained at 1600° over a still wider range of aluminum additions and fine- grained at 1700° with an addition of one pound per ton. Fig. 2 shows curves of the grain-coarsening temperature for these steels and illustrates how sulphur and aluminum combine to give greater inhibition to grain growth than aluminum alone. Only the highest sulphur steels have a grain-coarsening temperaturc above 1700°.. At 1650°, the low sulphur steel is fine-grained only at its peak, while the highest sulphur steel is fine-grained over a wide range. In these tests, one pound of aluminum per ton gave the best results; this is equivalent to about 1 1/2 lb. per ton for commercial condition. IllcQuaid-Ehn tests made on these steels showed the same trend but to a lesser degree. The tests were repeated on a series of S.A.E:. 1015 steels with sulphur levels of 0.02 and 0.03j per cent. Aluminum additions were made in the range from 0.025 to 0.15 per cent. These steels were forged and rolled, normalized at 2000°F. to put them all in the same starting condition, then reheated to various temperatures from 1600" to 1800" and cooled at rates that would allow ferrite precipitation in the austenitic grain boundaries. The results of these tests arc shown in Fig. 3. It will be noted that. up to the temperature of 1650°, there is very little difference in the grain size obtained from the two levels of sulphur. .At temperatures of 1700° and 1750°, however, the lower sulphur steel was fine-grained only with an aluminum addition of 1 1/2 lb, per ton;

Jan 1, 1945