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By Robert H. Hafner, Irvin R. Kramer, Stewart L. Toleman

IN his paper on the calculation of hardenability from chemical composition, Grossmann1 discussed the effect of most of the alloying elements used commercially. The purpose of the work reported in this paper was to determine the effect of several other elements on hardenability-arsenic, antimony, beryllium, cobalt, columbium, germanium, tellurium, tin, aluminum, and titanium-and to extend the range of composition of some of the elements studied by , Grossmann-chromium, copper, manganese, molybdenum, nickel and silicon. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS To determine the effect on hardenability, suitable amounts of the alloying elements were added to experimental heats and the hardenability determined by means of end-quenched hardenability specimens. The steels were melted in a high-frequency induction furnace with a basic crucible, using ingot iron as a base for some of the heats and S.A.E. 1015 for others. The alloying additions were made as ferroalloys or as metal, depending on the ' alloying element. Hundred-pound heats were split and poured into square, tapered, cast-iron ingot molds with hot tops. Aluminum was not used as a deoxidizer in most of the heats. The ingots were homogenized for 12 hr. at 1260°C. (2300°F.) , and forged into rounds of 1 ½ in. diameter. These bars were normalized twice from 840°C. (1550°F.) before machining into Jominy bars. The composition of the steels was deter- [ ] mined in most cases by samples taken from the end-quench hardenability specimen. As suggested by crafts,2acid-soluble

Jan 1, 1943

By J. L. Huiatt, D. G. Foot

The Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the Interior, investigated methods of recovering potash values from process and waste brines. Laboratory pan evaporation of four chloride brines produced crude salts containing predominantly sylvite, halite and carnallite. Six sulfate- chloride brines produced crude salts containing primarily schoenite, kainite, leonite, sylvite, carnallite, and halite. Potash grades ranged from 7.2% to 22.2% K20, and recoveries by crystallization ranged from 85% to 99%. Sylvite flotation from chloride evaporites with amine collector, recovered 90% to 97% of the potash in a concentrate containing 54.3% to 60.3% K20. Fatty acid flotation of the high sulfate evaporite recovered 78% of the sulfate minerals in a 28%-K20 concentrate. Flotation of the remaining chloride minerals with amine collector recovered 80% of the potash in a 59.7%-K20 concentrate. Solar evaporation of 37 854 L (10,000 gal.) of brine recovered 99% of the potash in a crude evaporite containing 24.5% schoenite and 20% sylvite. Flotation in a 45-kglh (100-lblh) continuous flotation unit recovered over 95% of the potash in schoenite and sylvite concentrates, containing 28% and 62.3% K20, respectively. An economic evaluation is included.

Jan 1, 1985

By Chas. Y. Clayton, Francis B. Foley, W. E. Remmers

DuRing the summer of 1919, the late Dr. Henry M. Howe, then Chairman of the Division of Engineering of the National Research Council, organized a committee to obtain a better insight into the behavior of carbon steels under the influence of various treatments by a proper control of the time and temperature factors. During part of 1919 and 1920, work in connection with this investigation was carried on at Dr. Howe's laboratory at Bedford Hills, N. Y. During 1921 there was an enforced hiatus in the work, occasioned by the illness which resulted in Dr. Howe's death in 1922. At that time one of the present authors compiled the results of the work which had been done and this was published in 1923.' Following the publication of this work, it seemed desirable to carry on in the same manner an investigation of steel of C 0.75 per cent., which steel had not been as fully treated as had the other steels of C 0.34 and 0.52 per cent., used in the published work. Furthermore, certain unusual results have been obtained in the treatment of C 0.52 per cent. steel by quenching and drawing, and repetition of this part of the work seemed advisable. This has been done during the past year at the School of Mines and Metallurgy of the University of Missouri at Rolla, Mo., by a cooperative undertaking of the School and the Bureau of Mines, working in conjunction with the Committee on Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels of the National Research Council. The present paper is a report of the results obtained in this work.

Jan 1, 1926

By R. D. Nelson

The purpose of this technical note is to briefly present some data on a phenomenon—recrystallization with concurrent deformation—that has been found to occur in a plutonium. This phenomenon is unusual because a plutonium is considered brittle, not easily deformed, and not easily recrystallized; the a phase is simple monoclinic having 8 atoms per unit cell and it is stable below about 115°C. The properties of the recrystallized metal were different from the as-cast metal. Even though a plutonium is difficult to deform, Ianniello successfully rolled it' and he also observed some recrystallization at 120°C.2 Pavlick and Hanson3 detected some recovery at 109°C but they observed no recrystallization. Gardner4 and Bronisz5 studied the compression properties up to 100°C but they did not report having seen recrystallization. In the present deformation studies of electrorefined plutonium pronounced recrystallization took place concurrently with plastic deformation in compression between 24" and 115°C. The metal contained less than 300 ppm total impurities with the major impurities being 100 ppm Am, 30 ppm C, 40 ppm W, and 25 ppm U; all other impurities totaled less than 100 ppm. The compression specimens were machined to dimensions of 1.2 cm long and 0.8 cm diam from as-cast rods having a density of 19.65 g per cu cm. They were heated to the test temperature in a high-temperature silicone fluid that was evacuated to 10-4 Torr. With this procedure the specimens oxidized a negligible amount, and the temperature was maintained within ±0.2°C for times up to 3 weeks. Deformation and recrystallization

Jan 1, 1969

By Keijiro Nishio

At a time of great antiquity when our Yomato tribe had not yet found its way throughout the country, there lived in Japan barbarous tribes of the stone age, whose dwellings were vertical caves covered with roof's of twigs and weeds. In a cave lately discovered at the village of Morita, 10 miles west from the port of Aomori, there were found pieces of micaceous iron-ore and psilomelane, with oval holes pierced from both sides. Apparently these objects were regarded as ornaments or curios, without being applied to any practical use. Among the traditions given in the Nihonshoki, an ancient history of Japan, there is one relating to the mining industry. According to this tradition, in the mythological age Izanami-no-Mikoto gave birth to Kanayamahiko-no-Mikoto, god of mines, and Amaterasu-Okami (the sun-goddess) was armed with swords. It came to pass at one time that she concealed herself in Ama-no-Iwato ("Heavenly Cave"), and several gods made contrivances to entice her out. Among them, Ishikori-dome, a smith, made a mirror with copper obtained from the Ama-no-Kagoyama, by means of a pair of bellows known as the Ama-no-habuki, which was made of a deer-skin. It is recorded also that Susanb-no-Mikoto, her younger brother, observed the abundance of gold and silver in Korea, where his descendants were to reign, and urged them to provide themselves with boats to convey them across the Sea of Japan. In the course of time he accomplished his object, proceeding to Korea with his son, Isotakeru-no-Mikoto. These accounts

Jan 1, 1913

By Basil B. Zavoico

Production of crude oil in the U. S. S. R. during 1939 is estimated at, 226,111,000 bbl., as compared with 219,778,000 bbl. in 1938, an irlcreasc of 2.88 per cent but some 6.00 per cent under the planned output. During the past year a major readjustment took place in Russian oil fields, with the Grozny district falling into the third place, its former place having been taken by the fields of the Maikop-Kuban area of northwestern Caucasus. Production continued to grow in the Ural-Volg:t district and further large increases in this province in the coming years are certain. The drilling operations continued to be most unsatisfactory, falling far behind the plan, possibly as much as 25 per cent undvr the set objectives, and thereby interfering with the production plans, mora particularly since the Soviet oil industry is still based primarily upon the production from the naturally flowing wells without any proration whatsoever rather than upon stabilized production from either prorated oil wells or those operated with various mechanical lifts. The year 1939 started with the fulfillment of the drilling programs to the extent of about 90 per cent, but the situation rapidly deteriorated arid by the second half drilling programs were being fulfilled only to the extent of 60 per cent or less. Such breakdown in drilling operations was possibly due to poor equipment, which has not been able to stand increasing demands upon it, and this is substantiated by the rccent orders plaeed in the United States by the Soviet Government for some 60 drilling rigs of the latest design. Production Baku District.—-The fields of the Apshcbron Peninsula (Baku district) made a notable progrress during the past year and were able slightly to increase their production, to 166,000,000 bbt. as compared with 164,692,-000 bbl. during 1938. The c.rnphasis of production in the Baku district remained on the flowing wells, about 20 per cent of the total number of wells flowing about 70 per cent of production. During 1939 some 550 wells were complr.tcd in the Baku district with active rigs averaging

Jan 1, 1940

By Basil B. Zavoico

Production of crude oil in the U. S. S. R. during 1939 is estimated at, 226,111,000 bbl., as compared with 219,778,000 bbl. in 1938, an irlcreasc of 2.88 per cent but some 6.00 per cent under the planned output. During the past year a major readjustment took place in Russian oil fields, with the Grozny district falling into the third place, its former place having been taken by the fields of the Maikop-Kuban area of northwestern Caucasus. Production continued to grow in the Ural-Volg:t district and further large increases in this province in the coming years are certain. The drilling operations continued to be most unsatisfactory, falling far behind the plan, possibly as much as 25 per cent undvr the set objectives, and thereby interfering with the production plans, mora particularly since the Soviet oil industry is still based primarily upon the production from the naturally flowing wells without any proration whatsoever rather than upon stabilized production from either prorated oil wells or those operated with various mechanical lifts. The year 1939 started with the fulfillment of the drilling programs to the extent of about 90 per cent, but the situation rapidly deteriorated arid by the second half drilling programs were being fulfilled only to the extent of 60 per cent or less. Such breakdown in drilling operations was possibly due to poor equipment, which has not been able to stand increasing demands upon it, and this is substantiated by the rccent orders plaeed in the United States by the Soviet Government for some 60 drilling rigs of the latest design. Production Baku District.—-The fields of the Apshcbron Peninsula (Baku district) made a notable progrress during the past year and were able slightly to increase their production, to 166,000,000 bbt. as compared with 164,692,-000 bbl. during 1938. The c.rnphasis of production in the Baku district remained on the flowing wells, about 20 per cent of the total number of wells flowing about 70 per cent of production. During 1939 some 550 wells were complr.tcd in the Baku district with active rigs averaging

Jan 1, 1940

By Reinhardt Thiessen

IN THE general study of coal, all evidence points in the one direction -that coals had their origin in a manner analogous to that of peat. The best method of studying coal, whether it concerns its chemistry, composition, or physical condition, is to study peat. The essentials in a study of peat are a knowledge of the chemistry of plants, knowledge of decay and of the transformation process of plant-substances into peat. A number of facts must be emphasized, namely, (1) peat is formed under wet conditions only; (2) plants grow in the place where peat is formed; (3) all the plant substances go into the bog; and (4) all the plant substances are subjected to a series of phases of decay which are (a) in the air completely above the water level but in relatively moist conditions; (b) above the water level, but covered by debris; and (c) completely submerged by both water and debris.

Jan 3, 1925

By Richard W. Smith

KYANITE, long known to occur in Georgia, did not excite commercial interest until about 1930. Investigations revealed two main types of deposits: (1) separate kyanite crystals embedded in mica schist; and (2) crystal aggregates of kyanite associated with quartz in small and very irregular veins. The second kind at first sight appeared to be the best source of supply. Large boulders or dornicks of kyanite with more or less quartz were found on the surface at many places throughout the Piedmont and Highland sections of the state, but prospecting failed to disclose a sizable vein. These dornicks seem to be a surface accumula-tion from small veins or lens-shaped masses not more than one or two feet thick, and with a horizontal extent of not' more than a few feet. The larger surface accumulation of kyanite dornicks, where not too badly stained by iron oxide, may prove to be marketable, but it is extremely doubtful whether a vein large enough to mine will ever be found. In 1932 deposits of the kyanite-mica schist were known to occur in two places northwest of Clarkesville, in Habersham County. In 1934, at the request of and in cooperation with the Georgia Geological Survey, the United States Geological Survey made a thorough investigation2 of the deposits and found that the two known areas of kyanite-mica schist in Habersham County were but a part of an unsymmetrical, U-shaped belt (Fig. 1) with a western limb extending into Rabun County and somewhat longer than the eastern limb. The total length of the belt is about 30 miles. The width of outcrop ranges from 100 ft. to 1/4 mile or more. Deposits of kyanite-mica schist of very doubtful commercial importance were found in several other counties. Only the deposits of this kyanite-mica schist belt in Habersham and Rabun counties will be discussed in this paper.

Jan 1, 1936

By R. G. Ward, John Henderson. R. G. Hudson, G. Derge

Densities of melts of the iron oxide-silica system in contact with solid iron have been measured by the maximum hubble pressure method in the composition range O to 37 wt pct SiOz and the temperature range 1255 to 1410C. The constitution of the melts is discussed and it is postulated that the structure changes from a dislribution of iron ions in an oxygen ion network at pure "FeO" to a distribution. of iron ions in a network of silicate tetrahedra at the orthosilicate composition. JOHN HENDERSON, Junior Member AIME, was formerly with the Metals Research Loborotory, Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa., on leave from Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Ltd., Research Division, Shortland, Australia. R. G. HUDSON, formerly with Metals Research Laboratory, is now with the John Jay Hopkins Loborotory for Pure and Applied Science, General Atomic Division, General Dynamics Corp., LaJolla, Calif. R. G. WARD, was formerly with the Department of Metal lurgical Engineering, Carnegie lnstitute of Technology, while on leave from the Department of Metallurgy, University of Sheffield, England. G. DERGE, Member AIME, is Jones and Laughlin Professor of Metallurgical Engineering, Carnegie lnstitute of Technology. Manuscript submitted January 19, 1961. ISD The system iron oxide-silica is an important one metallurgically because it forms the basis of several complex slag systems in use for industrial smelting and refining processes. In recent years considerable work has been done on liquids of this system but there are still many points of difference among workers using different experimental techniques and theoretical approaches. Phase equilibria/"3 activity,4-6 electrical conductivity,' current efficiency,' transference number,8 viscosity,9 surface tension,'' and density" measurements have all contributed to an understanding of the problem. Measurement of density is one procedure which is directly indicative of liquid structure since any deviation from ideality must be a result of structural interactions. Liquids of the iron oxide-silica system are of special interest because this is one of the few metal oxide-silica systems on which measurements can be carried out conveniently over the entire composition range from pure oxide to silica saturation. This includes the range of high basicity which has received relatively little attention in other systems. Although one investigation of density in this system has previously been undertaken," the results seem of sufficient importance to warrant the independent redeter-mination reported here.

Jan 1, 1962

By W. L. Finlay

Size effects in quenching steel are particularly prominent and well recognized because of the existence of a critical cooling rate separating nuclea-tion and growth transformations, as exemplified by the formation of pearl-ite, from the shear type of transformation characterizing the martensite reaction. The absence of a similar, sharply demarcating cooling rate is characteristic of precipitation hardening systems and size effects in these are correspondingly less prominent. This paper is concerned with a size effect in high-purity, precipitation-hardenable alloys which appears not to have been recognized previously. This effect is believed to result from the thermal fluctuations which inevitably occur in quenching a specimen of finite size into a cooling liquid rather than from the existence of a critical cooling rate. QUENCHING "ANOMALIES" The precipitation hardening literature contains many references to so-called anomalous quenching and aging results. By "anomalous", investigators usually meant that their alloys did not consistently harden on aging after quenching according to some anticipated pnttern: not infrequently virtually no age hardening occurred with compositions known to be precipitation-hardenable. Perhaps the most prominent series of anomalies was reported over a 15-year period by Gayler and coworkers on aluminum-copper.l,2,3,4 Working with silver-rich copper alloy, Cohen5 secured some very interesting Rockwell F hardness changes of from 1-5 Rockwell points between the first peak and valley. Fink and Smith borrowed one of Cohen's specimens and, following his heat treatment and quenching practice to the letter, secured6 very different results in which only one peak was obtained and in which the hardness level at the aging lime of Cohen's first peak was 20 Rockwell F points higher. Fink and Van Horn7 encountered serious deviations in age-hardening high purity aluminum-zinc alloys. They stated that "the discrepancies were larger than might be expected from possible experimental errors in the Brinell readings." Geisler, Barrett and Mehl8 likewise encountered anomalous hardening results in aluminum-silver alloys, securing quite different age-hardening curves from two identical specimens. They stated that "the treatments of these samples had been the same, so that the different behaviors could be attributed only to accidental variations in the quenching practice."

Jan 1, 1950

By Francis Freeland

An examination of accessible English literature shows that but small space has been allotted to the determination of faults ; most suggestions being confined to Schmidt's rule of the downthrow on the hanging-wall of the fault, or the coal-miner's rule of the obtuse angle. Von Carnall's modification of Schmidt's rule is sometimes given without the important exception, and Zimmermann's rule is

Jan 1, 1893

By H. Ries

Introduction BODIES of pyritic ore in schistose rocks have long been known in different parts of the world. The several occurrences resemble each other in being usually of more or less lenticular shape, inclosed in walls of schist or gneiss, and carrying pyrite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite in varying proportions, as the chief ore minerals. The deposits differ, however, in that sometimes one, sometimes another, of the three sulphides mentioned may predominate. The orebodies in general are more or less closely conformable with the schistosity of the wall rocks, although in cases this may not hold true. The boundaries may or may not be sharp, but in general are fairly distinct. The lenses vary in size, may occur singly, or in groups; in the latter case they may be in line, overlapping, or occasionally parallel. Pinching and swelling of individual lenses is not uncommon. The genesis of these pyritic bodies has provoked much discussion, and they have been variously classed as sedimentary, igneous intrusions, hydrothermal replacements or impregnations, etc. Indeed, in some cases different geologists have most positively assigned widely diverse origins to the same deposit, as in the case of Rio Tinto 1 and Rammelsberg.2 It is true that in the light of modern criteria, we have been able in a few cases to decipher clearly the process of origin and so there seems no doubt now regarding the genesis of the deposits at Rio Tinto, Spain;3 Rammelsberg, Germany ;4 Ducktown, Tenn.;5 southwestern Virginia;6

Jan 8, 1917

By B. W. Dyer

In 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H2O). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. Location and Geology of Deposits The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado River— a distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 20 E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 1/2 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel

Jan 1, 1948

By B. W. Dyer

In 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KCl) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H2O). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. Location and Geology of Deposits The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado River— a distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 20 E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 1/2 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel

Jan 1, 1948

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

Experience has indicated that hard bronzes are not suitable for bearing applications where high bearing loads and speeds are involved. It is the general practice to utilize softer materials for these purposes, such as copper, lead, silver, babbitt, lead-base alloys, and more recently aluminum-base alloys, preferably supported by a steel backing. It was the objective of the present investigation to study a new material produced by powder metallurgical methods susceptible to precipitation-hardening. Test MAteriaIs Preliminary tests were made with compacts containing copper, nickel and silicon in quantities sufficient to form 3 to 5 per cent nickel silicide. It mas found that this type of alloy was susceptible to the formation of a soft surface shell when sintered in tank hydrogen. The depth of the shell depended On the length of sintering time and sintering temperature, and varied in thickness from a few thousandths to as much as One eighth inch. This soft shell resulted from the preferential oxidation of silicon, thereby reducing the efficiency of age-hardening by the nickel silicide compound. The body of the sintered compacts below the soft shell could be precipitation-hardened to a hardness of 70 to 85 Rockwell B, by quenching from goo°C. and age-hardening at 450°C. A series of tests was made with various addition agents, in order to decrease the rate of preferential oxidation, and it was found that phosphorus was most beneficial in this respect. After considerable experimentation, the following nominal com-position was accepted as standard: 2.4 per cent nickel; 0.8 silicon; 0.3 phosphorus; balance copper. The physical propertties and certain bearing properties of this alloy are described in the present paper Preparation of Compacts Several methods of incorporating the hardening ingredient (nickel silicide) were studied. Compacts formed from copper, nickel and silicon powders were found to be inferior to those fabricated from prealloyed nickel silicide master alloys, because of the rapid oxidation of pure silicon during sintering. The use of a prealloyed nickel silicide hardener containing 25 per cent silicon and 75 per cent nickel could be further improved by preparing a master alloy, incorporating nickel, silicon, phosphorus and copper, having the following nominal composition~ 25 per cent nickel; 7 silicon; 3 phosphorus 64 copper. This alloy is brittle in the cast condition and can be readily powdered. Sintering Procedure The blended powders were pressed at '5 to 40 tons per sq' in., the pressure depending on the size and shape of the compacts. Sintering was carried out in hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres at

Jan 1, 1946

By E. I. Larsen, E. F. Swazy, F. R. Hensel

Experience has indicated that hard bronzes are not suitable for bearing applications where high bearing loads and speeds are involved. It is the general practice to utilize softer materials for these purposes, such as copper, lead, silver, babbitt, lead-base alloys, and more recently aluminum-base alloys, preferably supported by a steel backing. It was the objective of the present investigation to study a new material produced by powder metallurgical methods susceptible to precipitation-hardening. Test MAteriaIs Preliminary tests were made with compacts containing copper, nickel and silicon in quantities sufficient to form 3 to 5 per cent nickel silicide. It mas found that this type of alloy was susceptible to the formation of a soft surface shell when sintered in tank hydrogen. The depth of the shell depended On the length of sintering time and sintering temperature, and varied in thickness from a few thousandths to as much as One eighth inch. This soft shell resulted from the preferential oxidation of silicon, thereby reducing the efficiency of age-hardening by the nickel silicide compound. The body of the sintered compacts below the soft shell could be precipitation-hardened to a hardness of 70 to 85 Rockwell B, by quenching from goo°C. and age-hardening at 450°C. A series of tests was made with various addition agents, in order to decrease the rate of preferential oxidation, and it was found that phosphorus was most beneficial in this respect. After considerable experimentation, the following nominal com-position was accepted as standard: 2.4 per cent nickel; 0.8 silicon; 0.3 phosphorus; balance copper. The physical propertties and certain bearing properties of this alloy are described in the present paper Preparation of Compacts Several methods of incorporating the hardening ingredient (nickel silicide) were studied. Compacts formed from copper, nickel and silicon powders were found to be inferior to those fabricated from prealloyed nickel silicide master alloys, because of the rapid oxidation of pure silicon during sintering. The use of a prealloyed nickel silicide hardener containing 25 per cent silicon and 75 per cent nickel could be further improved by preparing a master alloy, incorporating nickel, silicon, phosphorus and copper, having the following nominal composition~ 25 per cent nickel; 7 silicon; 3 phosphorus 64 copper. This alloy is brittle in the cast condition and can be readily powdered. Sintering Procedure The blended powders were pressed at '5 to 40 tons per sq' in., the pressure depending on the size and shape of the compacts. Sintering was carried out in hydrogen or cracked ammonia atmospheres at

Jan 1, 1946

By S. H. Williston

IT not often that bore hole surveys can be checked by actual. civil engineering methods. A recent Arizona survey was checked by normal surveying methods and the comparison of the results should be of value to both oil and mining men. During the summer of 1948 the Phelps-Dodge Corporation, at its Copper Queen property near Bis-bee, Ariz., drilled a 1245 ft, 8 in. diarn, churn drillhole in a mineralized area and cased part of it, intending to use it to transfer mill tailings for stope fill. The hole, as frequently occurs, was not straight, and, in endeavoring to locate the bottom in the underground workings, they found no evidence of the hole at the underground coordinates directly below the surface location. The noise of the drilling tools was reasonably clear, but the direction of sound was uncertain. Preliminary tests with available equipment were not successful in locating the bottom of the hole. Because of the mineralized character of the area and the fact there was some casing in the hole, any magnetic method of well surveying would give results of doubtful value. Sperry-Sun gyroscopic well-surveying instruments were finally used to locate the bottom of the hole. These instruments consist of a gyroscope to determine azimuth and either a pendulum or bubble inclino-meter. A multiple shot camera photographs both instruments on a single film and superimposes the photograph of a watch. Coordination of depth with time at the surface makes it possible to select the corresponding picture for any depth. After making several runs of the empty instrument housing from the top of the hole to the bottom to make sure there were no obstructions in the hole, three surveys on wire line were completed during the afternoon. The three surveys, in which readings were taken at different points in the hole on each survey, were computed and gave the following locations of the bottom of the hole in relation to the surface collar: survey No. 1—24.92 N, 30.30 W; survey No. 2—24.24 N, 31.11 W; survey No. 3—26.54 N, 27.72 W. Then the data from the three surveys were combined into a single set of calculations which gave a location for the bottom of the hole: combined surveys—24.27 N, 30.16 W. (Fig. 1.) Immediately upon the determination of the coordinates at the bottom of the hole, a drift on the 1300 ft level was started toward the indicated loca- tion some 38 ft northwest of the coordinates of the surface location, The bottom of the hole was located within the drift round in which it was expected, and the transit survey run to the actual location of the hole indicated N 27.18, W 29.71. This shows a discrepancy between the well survey and the transit survey of 0.45 ft in the westerly direction and 2.91 ft in the northerly direction. All surveys, both gyroscopic and transit, fell well within the width of an ordinary drift. While this is satisfactory for almost any and all mining requirements, a theoretical examination was made as to reasons for the discrepancy. A study of the course of the hole indicates that considerable right turn or spiral existed, and in all probability the surveying instrument was pulled out of alignment while traversing the turn by approximately 0.05 ft at the top and another 0.05 ft in the opposite direction at the bottom of the instrument. If such an allowance were to be made, the survey calculations would almost exactly correspond with those determined by transit. This sort of discrepancy would be minimized by the use of stabilizing guides. It is unfortunate that physical laws probably effectively prevent the use of gyroscopic instruments in EX and AX diamond drill holes. The directive power of a gyroscope falls off inversely at some rate between the third power and the sixth power of the diameter. Present instruments can be run in casing 53/4 in. ID or over and might be adapted to somewhat smaller diameters, but the difficulty of reducing these diameters to 11/4 in. or 2 in. is almost insurmountable at the present time. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Phelps-Dodge Corporation for permission to publish this article, and to the Operating and Engineering Departments for their cooperation on the survey; also to Donald Hering, of the Sperry-Sun Well Surveying Co., who actually made the survey and calculated the results.

Jan 1, 1951

By S. H. Williston

IT not often that bore hole surveys can be checked by actual. civil engineering methods. A recent Arizona survey was checked by normal surveying methods and the comparison of the results should be of value to both oil and mining men. During the summer of 1948 the Phelps-Dodge Corporation, at its Copper Queen property near Bis-bee, Ariz., drilled a 1245 ft, 8 in. diarn, churn drillhole in a mineralized area and cased part of it, intending to use it to transfer mill tailings for stope fill. The hole, as frequently occurs, was not straight, and, in endeavoring to locate the bottom in the underground workings, they found no evidence of the hole at the underground coordinates directly below the surface location. The noise of the drilling tools was reasonably clear, but the direction of sound was uncertain. Preliminary tests with available equipment were not successful in locating the bottom of the hole. Because of the mineralized character of the area and the fact there was some casing in the hole, any magnetic method of well surveying would give results of doubtful value. Sperry-Sun gyroscopic well-surveying instruments were finally used to locate the bottom of the hole. These instruments consist of a gyroscope to determine azimuth and either a pendulum or bubble inclino-meter. A multiple shot camera photographs both instruments on a single film and superimposes the photograph of a watch. Coordination of depth with time at the surface makes it possible to select the corresponding picture for any depth. After making several runs of the empty instrument housing from the top of the hole to the bottom to make sure there were no obstructions in the hole, three surveys on wire line were completed during the afternoon. The three surveys, in which readings were taken at different points in the hole on each survey, were computed and gave the following locations of the bottom of the hole in relation to the surface collar: survey No. 1—24.92 N, 30.30 W; survey No. 2—24.24 N, 31.11 W; survey No. 3—26.54 N, 27.72 W. Then the data from the three surveys were combined into a single set of calculations which gave a location for the bottom of the hole: combined surveys—24.27 N, 30.16 W. (Fig. 1.) Immediately upon the determination of the coordinates at the bottom of the hole, a drift on the 1300 ft level was started toward the indicated loca- tion some 38 ft northwest of the coordinates of the surface location, The bottom of the hole was located within the drift round in which it was expected, and the transit survey run to the actual location of the hole indicated N 27.18, W 29.71. This shows a discrepancy between the well survey and the transit survey of 0.45 ft in the westerly direction and 2.91 ft in the northerly direction. All surveys, both gyroscopic and transit, fell well within the width of an ordinary drift. While this is satisfactory for almost any and all mining requirements, a theoretical examination was made as to reasons for the discrepancy. A study of the course of the hole indicates that considerable right turn or spiral existed, and in all probability the surveying instrument was pulled out of alignment while traversing the turn by approximately 0.05 ft at the top and another 0.05 ft in the opposite direction at the bottom of the instrument. If such an allowance were to be made, the survey calculations would almost exactly correspond with those determined by transit. This sort of discrepancy would be minimized by the use of stabilizing guides. It is unfortunate that physical laws probably effectively prevent the use of gyroscopic instruments in EX and AX diamond drill holes. The directive power of a gyroscope falls off inversely at some rate between the third power and the sixth power of the diameter. Present instruments can be run in casing 53/4 in. ID or over and might be adapted to somewhat smaller diameters, but the difficulty of reducing these diameters to 11/4 in. or 2 in. is almost insurmountable at the present time. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Phelps-Dodge Corporation for permission to publish this article, and to the Operating and Engineering Departments for their cooperation on the survey; also to Donald Hering, of the Sperry-Sun Well Surveying Co., who actually made the survey and calculated the results.

Jan 1, 1951

By B. W. Dyer

IN 1924, the Crescent Eagle Oil Co., while drilling the salt section of the Paradox formation in Grand County, Utah, encountered a salt that did not appear to be sodium chloride. This salt was analyzed and showed the presence of potash minerals, both sylvite (KC1) and carnallite (KMgC12.6H20). Because of the high potash content of the sample, there was considerable speculation: (I) as to whether the hole had been salted, and (2), if not, the extent, richness, and the depth at which the deposit occurred. The discovery caused a large amount of activity in the area. During the next few years, 68 potash prospecting permits were issued by the Government, 24 under the Act of 1917 and 44 under the Act of Feb. 7, 1927, each including about four sections of land. Several holes, all shallow, were drilled for potash. A number of holes were drilled for oil into the salt horizon and the cuttings collected at the oil wells were examined petrographically and chemically. The shallow test holes were not sufficiently deep to reach the potash horizon and revealed nothing of value, but several of the oil test holes gave some indication of where potash might be found. LOCATION AND GEOLOGY OF DEPOSITS The potassium and magnesium salts have been found in various places from the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad tracks about seven miles west of Thompsons, in eastern Utah, to Cane Creek, a tributary of the Colorado Rivera distance north and south of about 35 miles. In this locality, there appear to be five separate deposits: the Crescent Eagle area, which is in T. 22 S., R. 19 E.; the Salt Valley area, in the vicinity of the north-south line of T. 23 S., between R. 20 E. and R. 21 E.; the Seven Mile area, in the eastern part of T. 25 S., R. 2o E.; the Cane Creek area, on the Colorado River, in T. 26 S. and T. 27 S., R. 2o E. and R. 21 E.; and the Salt Wash area, in T. 22 S. and T. 23 S., R. 16 E. and R. 17 E. (Fig. I.) The Crescent Eagle and Salt Valley areas are in the Salt Valley anticline, some of the wells being in the fault graben and others outside. Structurally, the Salt Valley anticline is very complex, and can be described in general terms as a northwesterly plunging collapsed anticline about 15 miles long. In the Crescent Eagle area, the valley graben is about 1 mile wide and the salt probably forms a plug, the apex of which is in the vicinity of the Crescent Eagle well. Owing to the complex structure, there has been every opportunity for flowage in the salt to cause local thinning or thickening of beds. The regular succession of formations in the general area* is: [Cretaceous Mancos Dakota Jurassic Morrison Summerville Entrada Carmel]

Jan 1, 1945