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This paper discusses development, test data, field trials, performance, application and possible economics of high-energy blasting agents fueled with Nitropropane that can be bulk loaded into downholes or packed into waterproof packages at densities between 1.10 and 1.25 gm/cc and that yield calculated detonation pressures of 50 kilobars in small diameters to 100 kilobars in diameters over six inches. Using high-density nitrate, downhole densities of over 1.4 have been attained in field trials with correspondingly high calculated detonation pressures.

Jan 1, 1977

By Curtis Garner

Griesemer Stone located in Springfield, Missouri has supplied aggregate in Southwest Missouri since 1946. In 1954 the decision was made to mine the formation and utilize the mined out area for warehouse space. As advancement proceeded, entrances and small diameter air shafts for ventilation were needed and had to be added. It was decided in 1989 to sink an 8' diameter air shaft designed to move 200,000 cubic feet of air per minute with the help of (4) four 50,000 CFM Loren Cook Fans.

Jan 1, 1991

By Catherine Johnson, Kelly Williams

Advances in high-speed video imaging make it possible to see the refraction of light due to the high-density gradient at the shock front without the need for parabolic mirrors or additional light sources necessary for Schlieren or shadowgraph imaging. The average shock front velocity between two points can be calculated by dividing the change in position by the elapsed time between the images. Using the Rankine-Hugoniot relationship demonstrated by Swisdak the peak overpressure of the shock wave can be calculated from its velocity eliminating the interference of the gage and mount

Feb 1, 2020

By Kia Riihioja, Mike Higgins

A major difference between electronic and pyrotechnic detonators is that, in almost all but the simplest of blast layouts, computer software is required to plan a blast using electronic detonators. While it may be possible to program delay times without software, using only the manufacturer’s control hardware, the full potential of electronic detonators can only be realized through software. Until recently, the only software available has been provided by the suppliers of the electronic detonators. These usually have just enough features to create a hole layout and to assign times to the detonators in the holes. The software is also able to communicate only with the manufacturer’s detonators. This means that the client may be compelled to change several parts of the blasting process when a different delay system is adopted, from design through to implementation and reporting, even though these may be sub-optimal at the client’s mine. While many authors have demonstrated improvements in blasting outcomes using electronic detonators, very few have discussed how the delay times were calculated. Where the calculations are discussed, it is also obvious that the delay times must be monitored and re-evaluated as conditions in the mine change. For example, the principles of superposition and scaled distance, burden relief and energy cooperation between holes should be checked constantly for different locations within the mine, changes in rock properties, or even for differences between design and actual hole positions. The most common methods in blast design software to calculate delay times are inter-hole interval, relief contour and direct editing. Although they are simple in concept, they can result in fundamental errors if they are not applied correctly. The software for electronic blast designs should be capable of not just a timing calculation, but also of showing, to some degree, the impact and interaction of the calculated times.

Jan 1, 2004

By Alan Hooper, James E. Mischler

Construction began in 1984 for a 5 megawatt hydroelectric power retrofit at the O'Shaughnessy Dam for the City of Columbus, Ohio. The construction necessitated excavation of limestone bedrock up to 27 feet below the normal water level of the river downstream of the dam. Proximity to the river and difficult terrain resulted in an interesting and challenging construction project.

Jan 1, 1986

By Khiva Haidar Shauma Tassno, Zulham Ahmad, Farhan Harist Maharesi, Abdullah Badawi Batubara

Blasting operations can use a bulk emulsion explosive (EE) with a formulation based on used oil as a replacement for refined fuel oil. The most commonly employed used oil for making EE is a mineral based used engine oil that passes an impurity content standard. It is known that not all types of used oil are easily incorporated into EE formulations. Impurities in used oil can disturb EE stability resulting in crystallization and phase separation and consequently led to poor detonation quality. In 2024, a poor blast result occurred at an Indonesian mine due to utilization of used oil that was not within specification. A research project conducted from February to April 2025 found that used transmission oil differs from used engine oil in hydrocarbon composition. Transmission oil contains more additives that affect EE stability due to polarity differences and the disruption of colloidal state stability. Lab tests including stress testing and crystal growth observation aided the development of a stable EE formulation based on used oil and used transmission oil. In mid-April 2025, blast evaluations were conducted using the EE that was formulated using used engine oil and used transmission oil. Measurements of velocity of detonation, fragmentation, and digging time, demonstrated high quality EE was produced. Application of used oil in EE revolutionized the capability of mining operations to improve blast sustainability and cleanliness. Through comprehensive research, robust testing, and effective supply chain management, it is possible to replace some portion of refined fuel oil with used oil without compromising blasting performance. The inclusion of used transmission oil broadens the overall used oil specification and increases the volume of recycled used oil available for blasting. The increased volume of used oil available can reduce the amount of waste generated by mining projects while maintaining operational efficiency.

Jan 26, 2026

By Ali Kahriman, Olivio Angelini, Ibrahim Sefer, Burak Ekmen, Koray Arpak, Ertugrul Kaya, Yucel Karakus, Abdullah Sak, Aziz Ozdemir

In recent years, in order to bring solution to traffic intensity arising from transportation problems and facilitate public transportation in the modern world in paralel to urbanization and to the increase in population, it’s well known that, the construction of Access tunnels is inevitable. The driving of the tunnels is a subject of special interest in the technique of rock blasting. The essential factors in terms of tunnel driving and safety in tunnel blasting that is applied in metropolitan areas, an in depth knowledge of ground vibrations and the ways of reducing them to safer levels.

Jan 1, 2010

By G. A. Walsh, M. Timm, S. M. Geerts

This paper will discuss the effectiveness and the general use of improvised shaped charges. Testing was conducted by the New Mexico Tech Student Chapter of ISEE and held at EMRTC. The first series of tests conducted was to illustrate the performance of different features of the shaped charge. A PVC pipe filled with C4 with no cavity, PVC with an unlined conical cavity, PVC with a copper lined conical cavity and no standoff, and lastly a PVC pipe with a copper lined cavity and a 1.5 cone diameter standoff.

Jan 1, 2010

This case history refers to the detonation of the two largest chemical explosions on the Australian continent. An important element of feasibility studies and construction guidance included prediction of fragmentation results and ground vibration effects for the detonation of two very large "coyote" blasts, consisting of mined tunnels filled with explosives. The larger of the two blasts contained nearly 1 1/4 million pounds of explosives detonated instantaneously. The explosives were placed in specially designed tunnels under a quartzite mountain for the purpose of generating rock fill for the main dam on the project.

Jan 1, 1995

By Theodore C. Hile, Floyd P. Henry, Ken Gragg

"Conventional explosive-storage methods usually rely on combinations of earth and concrete barriers, along with sufficient distance between limited explosive loads, to avoid accidental conflagration. However, under many circumstances, Air National Guard (ANG) facilities co-located with civilian airfields have trouble meeting necessary Quantity-Distance (Q-D) requirements for Explosive Hazard Class/Division 1.1 and 1.4 materials. Because of the danger posed by explosives stored in earthcovered magazines (ECMs) too close to civilian activities, ANG units often find itdifftcult to maintain adequate stores of ordnance needed to meet unit mission goals."

Jan 1, 1999

By Gregg R. Gitschlag

There are more than 4,000 oil and gas structures present in the U. S. Gulf of Mexico. Approximately 100 structure removals occur each year and 66% of these are removed with explosives. From 1993-1995 an intensive study was conducted on the fish kill resulting from the explosive removal of 6 platforms off the Louisiana coast in water depths from 14-28 m (45-92 ft). After explosives were detonated, all floating fish and a sample of the dead fish which sank to the sea floor were collected.

Jan 1, 1997

By Adrian Moore, Alan Richards

"It has been common practice to set blast vibration limits for structures using an “observational”approach whereby limits are set at a level based on observations of damage, or the lack ofdamage, combined with a tendency to further reduce the permitted level due to uncertainty. Suchan observational approach was used in the USBM RI 8507 to produce the frequency dependent‘Safe Levels of Blasting Vibration for Houses’ which has become a universal Standard for overthirty years."

Jan 1, 2013

By Tristan Worsey, Nathan Rouse, Daykin Schnell

The authors were retained by a proposed underground metals mine operation to evaluate the potential blast vibration amplitudes that could be generated at surface structures above the proposed mine. Literature reviews of published blasting documentation gave little information, data, or models on surface blast vibrations produced by underground mines. At the client’s request, the authors contacted a number of underground mining operations to evaluate interest in sharing blast vibration data with the authors so that the authors could develop an underground-to-surface blast vibration regression equation.

Feb 1, 2020

By Andy Hudson, Stuart Brashear, David Lilly

Because of greatly increased timing accuracy, electronic detonator systems are a well-known and widely accepted major tool to control and reduce ground vibration. At a Southeastern quarry the authors found that the use of electronic detonators improved the reliability of the well known cubed root scaled distance equation for determining air blast. In addition, the authors noticed significant correlations between selected major peak particle velocity frequencies and air blast magnitudes. The major peak particle velocity frequency alone is a close approximation to air blast magnitudes. This relationship is not as significant or not always evident when standard pyrotechnic initiation systems are used.

Jan 1, 2009

By Cathy Aimone-Martin, Kristin Dunlap Kolden

Blasting was conducted for the Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) in the Columbia River near Saint Helens, Oregon during 2009 and 2010 to deepen the navigation channel as a final phase of a dredging project to accommodate larger container ships. The Columbia River Channel Improvement Project (CRCI) required 4 months to blast and dredge 300,000 yd3 (229,366 m3) of basalt from the bottom of the channel to allow Post-Panamax vessels with drafts up to 50 ft (15.2 m) access to the Ports along the River. Explosives charges were limited to 90 lbs (40.8 kg) per delay for the protection of fish and marine life in the area. A fish mortality study and marine mammal monitoring program was also required by the Corps. Underwater overpressure monitoring was required for each blast and peak overpressures measured 10 ft (3.1 m) above the river bottom 140 ft (42.7 m) from the closest blast hole were not to exceed 70 psi (483 kPa) with a cautionary level of 40 psi (276 kPa). Specifications required sampling rates of 500k S/s and PCB Peizotronics tourmaline pressure sensors. The Corps granted permission to co-locate additional ceramic-type sensors at different sampling rates to design redundant monitoring systems 140 and 300 ft (42.7 and 91.4 m) from blasting and develop a site-specific overpressure attenuation model for the project. This paper presents the correlations of overpressure with cube-root scaled distance factors, a comparison of measurements using three different pressure sensor systems, and a discussion of blast design influence on overpressure measurements.

Jan 1, 2014

By William Reisz

In our line of work,like many other professions, there may be times when circumstances or a series of events may arise, contributing toward unacceptable risk. When multiple parties are involved, there will almost inevitably be differences on how best to deal with these situations. Unless approached in an intelligent and these differences may often have the potential for costly and unexpected results.

Jan 1, 2014

By Gregory B. Poole

Data collected with 16K sampling at a variety of blasting sites (construction, quarry, trench, mine) and monitoring locations was analyzed to effectively show the 16 different 1K readings all based on the microsecond that the unit went into monitoring.

Feb 1, 2020

By William Reisz

The explosives and blasting industry has a commendable safety and security record, especially over the last several decades. This is due in large part to our newer technologies, better training and education, engineering practices, corporate initiatives, our professional organizations, and whether we like to admit it or not - our regulatory agencies.

Jan 1, 2012

By Diego Quezada, Carlos Munoz, Marco Arellano

It is well-know that the presence of fine materials in mining has a direct impact on the plant processes with a great influence in the total amount of ore production and recovery. In Cu mining heap leaching is affected negatively by the presence of fines material (< 100 # Ty) in leaching piles, where a decreasing in Cu recovery is achieved in a lot of cases. D&B practices used normally in mine operations can generate fines > 4% in blasted piles, but the principal effects are reflected in the downstream processes where pre-conditioning post-blast materials release greater quantities of fines.

Jan 1, 2010

By Natalie Zeleznik, Brian Hawkins, David Bradley, Rachel Gooding, Patrick Wilson, Brian Somes, Kevin Wegman

"To perform a probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), a method of quantifying the risks associated withinfrequent high consequence events, consequence models that generate representative estimates of human health consequences for a wide variety of representative scenarios are commonly used. Criteria that suitable models must possess include: (1) input requirements necessary to generate large volumes ofprobabilistic simulations; (2) the capability to output injuries with the necessary details and resolution;(3) the ability to capture the variety of different scenarios inherent in an assessment; (4) acceptable cost and computational requirements; and (5) sufficient stakeholder buy-in for community acceptance."

Jan 1, 2017