Search Documents

By Sherwin F. Kelly

THE geophysical scene shifts and alters, the emphasis changes, and new possibilities loom, but the tendency is always towards widening the field and deepening the analytical penetration. Seismic methods have had their heyday, the torsion balance is being displaced by the gravimeter, electrical methods are showing deeper penetration, soil analysis is the newest tool, and gamma-ray logging appears on the horizon. One of the striking features of re- cent geophysical work in the oil fields has been the marked decrease in the number of seismic crews employed. Although the percentage of company crews is believed to have increased appreciably. the sum total has fallen sharply, as shown by the figures for the Gulf Coast area. About two years ago probably over 100 seismic parties were operating there, whereas now there are only about 35. This decrease may be partly due to the low prices of petroleum with a consequent reluctance to spend money to increase crude-oil re- serves but more probably to the fact that reflection and refraction shooting have been carried on so extensively that they have been applied to a large pro- portion of the areas in which they may reasonably be expected to succeed. Some of the earlier enthusiasm, particularly over reflection prospecting, may have erred on the side of over- optimism; some of the present curtailment may be due to over pessimism; but in the opinion of various observers seismic work at the present rate seems to be at it- optimum. It nevertheless remains pre-eminent as a technique for detailing structures in areas where good reflections can be obtained and is the only method that will give accurate depth to definite beds. Results may be poor in certain areas but many regions still remain wherein it can be applied, so that plenty of structural mapping remains to be done by the reflection seismic method.

Jan 1, 1940

By AIME AIME

THE second meeting of 'the Open-Hearth Committee, 'sub-division of the Iron and Steel Committee of this Institute, was held at the Hotel Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio; on Oct. 13-15. On Oct: 12, the Open-Hearth Superintendents visited the plants of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. and. the Republic Iron and Steel Co. These men were courteously entertailled by the two companies and every facility for a thorough inspection was furnished. Luncheon was severed at the plant bf the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. The meeting was opened Tuesday morning with addresses by J. V. W. Reynders, President of the Institute, and Herbert M. Boylston, Chairman of the Ohio Section of the Institute. E. A. Whitworth, of the Gathmann Engineering Co., presided at the meeting and L. B. Lindeinuth was secretary.

Jan 1, 1925

By Robert Ammon

THE milling practice at Mascot, at present, consists of dry crushing to 5/8 in., jigging, fine grinding, and flotation. The ore arrives at the mill from two mines, No. 1 mine shaft being located in the mill proper, and No. 2 mine shaft being situated about 2000 ft. east of the mill. No. 2 mine is served by a coarse-crushing plant and aerial tramway to the mill bins. In jigging the No. 2 mine ore, 50 per cent. of the mill feed is rejected by the jigs as a jig tailing ranging from 5/8 in. to 10 mesh; the balance of this ore, after removing a jig concentrate, is ground to flotation feed. In jigging No. 1 mine ore, approximately 80 per. cent. of the mill feed is rejected as a coarse jig tailing, and the balance is ground to flotation feed without the removal of a jig concentrate. The difference in the treatment is due to the fact that No. 2 mine ore carries a higher content of zinc than that from No. 1 mine. Of the total concentrates produced, 30 per cent. are made on jigs and 70 per cent. by flotation. At present, 1350 tons of No. 2 ore and 800 tons of No. 1 ore are treated each 24 hours. The recoveries for a typical week are as follows: Heads 3.55 Jig concentrates 61.30 Jig tails 0.80 Flotation concentrates 60.60 Flotation tails 0.09 Extraction 86.50 The associated minerals are a straw-colored sphalerite, dolomite, calcite, pyrite, quartz, and a small amount of greenockite, which occurs as a stain and sometimes small crystals along with sphalerite, but is comparatively rare. Pyrite is present in small quantities, usually less than 0.5 per cent.; quartz occurs in bands a few inches thick. A complete analysis of the ore is as follows:

Jan 9, 1924

By J. E. Brantly

THE oil-producing industry may logically be 'divided into four independent branches: (1) Acquisition of possible productive lands by lease, fee purchase, concession, or otherwise and the perfection of titles thereto. (2) Studies of the geology of the properties, leading to the location of exploratory wells. These involve reconnaissance and detailed surveys and the use of geophysical instruments, where conditions do not permit surface determination. (3) Drilling of exploratory or test holes and, later, exploitation wells. (4) Actual recovery of the oil from the wells by flowing, pumping, or other methods. These four divisions of the industry are unrelated in detail of accomplishment, but they are entirely complementary, one to the other, and must, in any efficient' organization, harmonize in their respective efforts toward the desired ultimate end. The relative order for the first two branches is not necessarily the proper one; in fact one should have knowledge of the favorable possibilities of a given property before it is acquired, and preferably, also, final opinions as to then proper location for an exploratory well, if such is justified in the light of

Jan 1, 1937

By H. DeWitt Smith

THE disastrous effect of two major wars on foreign economic health is giving American capital opportunities which might have not otherwise developed. At a time when discovery of major orebodies in the United States awaits fuller application of new geophysical tools and technical methods, U. S. investors must seek other fields where investment may be put to work. The unsettling effects of war have made it almost impossible for foreign nationals to develop mineral wealth, permitting Americans to enter at a time when U. S. mining, with a few exceptions, is in the process of expanding known orebodies and developing only a few new ones. Available capital, however, is not the only pre- requisite for entering the foreign mineral development field. The capital must be able to work in favorable economic atmosphere, a condition not easily satisfied in a world constantly in a state of political and social flux. In many countries, the political theory changes as often as the wind direction in March. Thus, the political stability of the form of government is of prime importance to the investor. In addition, a balanced budget and a moderate tax structure are important. Because in making foreign investment it is inevitable that one will have dealings with government officials, it is basic that they must be of high integrity. In countries filling the requirements, it will usually be found that the economic initiative of the individual is respected. Newmont Mining Corp.'s three major investments in the last 15 years have been in Canada and the

Jan 1, 1952

By Arcy A., J. G. Davis, D&apos Shock

Results of a pilot operation in the Carlsbad Basin are discussed. After hydrafracing between wells, a block of potash was removed by solution techniques. The distance between frac wells was about 200 ft, the thickness of potash mineralization, 5 ft. By proper manipulation, a feed of concentrate brine was obtained. The ex-periment showed that the thin-bedded potash could be removed by the solution techniques. The details of well construction, method of operation, and removal rates are discussed. Continental Oil Co.'s laboratory research on the fundamentals of potash solution mining has been expanded by means of a series of field tests, and subjects such as well completion and hydraulic fracturing were added to the investigation. Both single-well and multi-well systems were studied in the field work. Discussion Background: The current paper discusses one field test in which potash was solution mined by a two-well system from a thin sylvinite zone. The potential economic value of solution mining evolves from (1) the use of drilled holes and solution techniques instead of excavated shafts and caverns and (2) the ability to mine both land and marine deposits through any type of overburden geology and below conventional mining depths. Recent interest has been focused on potash' and other soluble minerals, such as trona. Solution extraction minerals, such as copper and uranium, are also worthy of important consideration. In addition, many of the techniques are directly applicable to the construction of horizontal underground storage carverns in salt. There are two general approaches to potash solution mining. The first is to mine on a single-well basis, in which the same well bore is used for both injection and production. This method is slow, and the areal extent may be quite limited in other than very thick ore zones. The second, and the preferred approach, is to mine on a multi-well basis in which the solvent is circulated between wells. This technique, if applied in a manner which allows the ore zone to be mined from the bottom upward, results in nearly all the solution taking place from the cavern roof. Salt removal rates, therefore, are very much higher than from a single-well system.l Wells can be interconnected into a multi-well pattern by several means. One is to join single-well caverns in the lower part of an ore zone. Another is to use the hydraulic fracturing techniques developed in the oil fields.' We preferred the fracture approach because of its potential for creating the greatest area of salt exposure. Test Site Description: The field tests were conducted in New Mexico's Carlsbad Basin, where the potash deposits are flat and uniform over reasonable distances. Here, 12 potash zones are present in the massive Salado Salt section. The specific target was the Third Ore Zone which is about 4 ft thick at our location and about 1150 ft deep. The test pattern was designed in the shape of an equilateral triangle with a fourth well located in the center, 200 ft from each of the vertex wells. This configuration allowed the ore zone to be hydraulically fractured from the center well with good assurance that the fracture would intersect the bore of at least one outside well. Several multi-well test patterns would be available if the fracture connected all wells. Well Completion: Surface casing was set in the top of the Salado Salt at 600 ft to shut off water flows from the surface sands, and the salt section was drilled and diamond-cored to a point below the Third Ore Zone. A drilling fluid made of diesel oil with a small amount of emulsified water was used to drill and core the salt. This fluid was highly successful in preventing enlargement of the drilled hole and in promoting good core recovery. The three outside wells were completed by setting 51/2-in. casing at the base of a streak of anhydrite about 20 ft above the ore zone. Pipe was set high so that the intersection point of the fracture could be detected even if the fracture migrated above the ore zone as it progressed outward from the center well. The center well itself was completed by cementing 51/2-in. casing through the Third Ore Zone. Cement bond logs run on the center well have shown excellent bonding. Fracturing Practice: A mechanical tool was used to cut a notch through the casing and into the salt at a point about 1 ft below the ore zone in the center well. The purpose of this notch was to fix the point of fracture entry into the salt. The fracturing was done with water at injection rtaes as high as 30 bbl per min. The salt parted at 1450 psi; and it required only 5 min for the fracture to reach the well which was 200 ft to the south. It took about 5 min more to reach the other two wells. Caliper surveys were run to locate the point of fracture entry in the three outside wells. The fracture appears to have drifted downward slightly, entering the outside wells at the top of a streak of carnallite 8 or 9 ft below the ore zone. A cross section of the wells selected for the multi-well test is shown in Fig. 1. The figure includes KC1 values based on core analysis and the trace of the fracture plane between the wells.

Jan 1, 1971

By E. R. Buchanan, R. E. Reed-Hill, F. W. Caldwell

Poly crystalline zirconium tensile specimens containing a sizable fraction of grains unfavorably oriented for slip were deformed at 77°K to strains as high as 9 pct. The contributions of the various twinning modes to the observed strain were deter~nlned quantitatively using measured twin volume fractions and Schrnid orientation factors. The results indicate that at very small strains twinning can account for almost all of the observed strain. At higher strains slip becomes the dominant means of deformation. The most significant form of twinning was {1121}. PLASTIC deformation in polycrystalline aggregates is poorly understood even today. This is primarily because slip cannot be easily observed or studied in the interior of a metal. On the other hand, twinning can be discerned inside a specimen after deformation. Twinning studies can therefore often yield quantitative information about polycrystalline deformation not otherwise obtainable. This investigation uses the above aspect of twinning in determining the contributions of twinning to the strain during tensile deformation at a cryogenic temperature (77°K). Polycrystalline zirconium was used as the object of study. There are several reasons why this information should be of value. In contrast to many metals, both the strength and ductility of zirconium increase with a corresponding decrease in temperature. This may be related to the fact that twinning becomes more profuse and complex with decreasing temperature. Secondly, it has been discovered that certain room-temperature properties of zirconium can be greatly improved by about 1 pct prestrain at 77°K. These include an increase in tensile elongation in critical directions by over 50 pctl and a large mechanical hysteresis effect.2 Both effects are believed to be related to twins formed by prestraining: plastic twin-boundary movements accounting for the increased ductility, and anelastic twin-boundary movements for the internal friction. Thirdly, hexagonal metals which twin primarily on only the (1012) mode (such as beryllium, zinc, and magnesium), unlike zirconium, are very limited in ductility at cryogenic temperatures. Therefore, the significance of the various types of twinning in zirconium at cryogenic temperatures is of more than academic interest. Three twinning mechanism-s have beenobserved in quantity at WOK, {1012), {1121), and {1122). Each must be considered as a unique deformation mechanism because of their markedly different twinning shears and basically different angles between twinning and basal planes, as shown in Table I. It is therefore necessary to separately consider the role of each of these twins during plastic deformation at 77°K. Fortunately, each twin possesses unique morphological features which makes its identification possible on a properly prepared metallographic section. The use of the polarized microscope3 can also greatly aid in identification of the various forms of twins. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Arc-melted sponge zirconium plate, previously describedY4 was machined into 1/8 by 1 1/4 in. threaded-end, round tensile test specimens. These specimens were deformed to the desired strains in a liquid-nitrogen cryostat mounted in an Instron testing machine. The tensile axis was the transverse plate direction. This specimen direction resulted in large numbers of grains in orientations unfavorable for deformation by prism or basal slip. Deformed specimens were sectioned, mounted in epoxy cold-mount resin, ground on metallographic papers, electropolished, and anodized to provide surfaces sensitive to polarized light. Standard quantitative metallographic procedures5

Jan 1, 1965

By W. O. Philbrook, K. Natesan

A mathematical model was derived for the temperature change in a particle undergoing heterogeneous chemical reaction and heal exchange with a stream of fluid. The model has been applied specifically to the exothermic oxidation of spherical particles of zinc sulfide. Very good agreement was obtained between the theoretical prediclion and experimental observation. It was found that at no stage of the reaction was the particle subjected to a state of thermal instability. In studies of gas-solid reactions, it is generally assumed that the gaseous and the solid phases are at the same temperature throughout the reaction period. This is not strictly true since most of the reactions are either exothermic or endothermic in nature. This paper deals only with heterogeneous gas-solid reactions of noncatalytic type. In the case of exothermic reactions (e.g., roasting of sulfides), there may result an increase in temperature of the particle due to the release of the heat of reaction, and this increase in temperature may enhance the reaction rate and thus cause further release of heat. Such a "spiralling" effect may lead to a thermally unstable situation within the particle. On the other hand, in the case of endothermic reactions (e.g., calcination of limestone), there may occur a decrease in temperature of the particle as the reaction proceeds, leading to a virtual "quenching" of the reaction front. A general discussion of autothermic processes with emphasis on properties and reactor design is given by Van Heerden. 1 Levesque and cubicciotti 2 observed self heating of the sample in the oxidation of thorium. Anous et al. 3 observed self cooling of the sample in their dehydration studies on chrome alum. Cannon and Denbigh, 4 and Ong et al.5 reported self heating of the sample in their studies of the kinetics of oxidation of zinc sulfide. A typical plot of heat generation and heat loss rates with reaction temperature is shown in Fig. 1.'14 The Sigmoid curve represents the heat generation rate while the straight lines represent the heat loss rate. The main objectives of this analysis are to estimate the temperature increase of a single particle undergoing an exothermic reaction and to study the possibility of a thermally unstable situation within the particle. Also, a study of the dependence of the tempera- ture increase on different process variables has been attempted. A "she ll-by-shell" method has been proposed to analyze the problem. The shells may be made as small as necessary, and equations may be set up for heat transfer by various mechanisms. Such equations will have to be solved for each shell, with the boundary conditions for ith shell being obtained from the (i - 1)th shell, using a high speed digital computer. The oxidation of spherical particles of zinc sulfide is considered for this analysis, but the treatment is general enough to be applicable to other reactions and particle shapes. The oxidation reaction can be written as AH =« -115 kcal/mole ZnS [1] Such a reaction has been found to proceed in a topo-chemical manner; i.e., as the reaction proceeds, a progressively thicker outer shell of zinc oxide is formed, while the inner core of unreacted sulfide decreases. It has been found experimentally, both in the present work and in the previous investigations,4-6 that the particle retains its original dimensions. Therefore, at any given time, the particle may be

Jan 1, 1970

By T. E. Leontis, J. P. Murphy

During the last few years, the trend in the aircraft and automotive industries has been toward higher and higher operating engine temperatures. This has created considerable interest in the effect of temperature on the properties of alloys. In the magnesium field, it has been recognized for many years that the addition of cerium imparts high strength and good resistance to creep at elevated temperatures. Beck,' in his treatise on magnesium, has summarized the work of German investigators. This includes the unpublished data of Menking, showing the increase in strength and hardness of extruded alloys containing 2 to 20 per cent Ce at temperatures from 20' to 300°C. (68" to 57z°F.) and the results of Vosskiihler, who demonstrated the improved resistance to creep of alloys containing 6 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn and 0.5 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn at 150°C. (302°F.). Wellinger and Kei12 have also reported the creep properties of a forged magnesium-cerium-man-ganese alloy at 200' and 250°C. (392' and 482°F.). Haughton and Prytherch have determined the tensile properties of various forged magnesium alloys containing cerium, cerium plus manganese, cerium plus calcium, cerium plus nickel, cerium plus nickel plus manganese, and cerium plus cobalt plus manganese at temperatures up to 290°C. (554OF.). Magnesium-cerium alloys have been used in some commercial applications. It is reported that an alloy containing 3 per cent Ce plus 0.5 per cent Mn plus 0.5 per cent Ca is being used on a forged impeller in Great Britain. Two forged parts made from an alloy with a nominal composition of 5 per cent Ce and 2 per cent Mn have been found on the German BMW-8o1D aircraft engine. These two forgings consist of a supercharger impeller and a rear cam-follower guide. In this country, several types of pistons have been made experimentally in both the cast and the forged conditions from an alloy containing 6 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn and in the cast condition from an alloy of magnesium plus 10 per cent Ce. The cast pistons have been tested in various types of internal-combustion engines, with promising results. This paper presents the results of an extensive investigation on the properties of various cerium-containing magnesium alloys in both the cast and the forged conditions. Data are presented to show the beneficial effects of increasing amounts of cerium on the mechanical properties of magnesium at at temperatures' The effects of heat-treatment on the properties of these alloys and the attendant changes in the microstructure are discussed. The alloys investigated most extensively are

Jan 1, 1946

By J. P. Murphy, T. E. Leontis

During the last few years, the trend in the aircraft and automotive industries has been toward higher and higher operating engine temperatures. This has created considerable interest in the effect of temperature on the properties of alloys. In the magnesium field, it has been recognized for many years that the addition of cerium imparts high strength and good resistance to creep at elevated temperatures. Beck,' in his treatise on magnesium, has summarized the work of German investigators. This includes the unpublished data of Menking, showing the increase in strength and hardness of extruded alloys containing 2 to 20 per cent Ce at temperatures from 20' to 300°C. (68" to 57z°F.) and the results of Vosskiihler, who demonstrated the improved resistance to creep of alloys containing 6 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn and 0.5 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn at 150°C. (302°F.). Wellinger and Kei12 have also reported the creep properties of a forged magnesium-cerium-man-ganese alloy at 200' and 250°C. (392' and 482°F.). Haughton and Prytherch have determined the tensile properties of various forged magnesium alloys containing cerium, cerium plus manganese, cerium plus calcium, cerium plus nickel, cerium plus nickel plus manganese, and cerium plus cobalt plus manganese at temperatures up to 290°C. (554OF.). Magnesium-cerium alloys have been used in some commercial applications. It is reported that an alloy containing 3 per cent Ce plus 0.5 per cent Mn plus 0.5 per cent Ca is being used on a forged impeller in Great Britain. Two forged parts made from an alloy with a nominal composition of 5 per cent Ce and 2 per cent Mn have been found on the German BMW-8o1D aircraft engine. These two forgings consist of a supercharger impeller and a rear cam-follower guide. In this country, several types of pistons have been made experimentally in both the cast and the forged conditions from an alloy containing 6 per cent Ce plus 2 per cent Mn and in the cast condition from an alloy of magnesium plus 10 per cent Ce. The cast pistons have been tested in various types of internal-combustion engines, with promising results. This paper presents the results of an extensive investigation on the properties of various cerium-containing magnesium alloys in both the cast and the forged conditions. Data are presented to show the beneficial effects of increasing amounts of cerium on the mechanical properties of magnesium at at temperatures' The effects of heat-treatment on the properties of these alloys and the attendant changes in the microstructure are discussed. The alloys investigated most extensively are

Jan 1, 1946

By Lysle E. Shaffer

INCREASING attention has been given in the last decade to the possibilities of mine leasing in the West. The practice as described in this article does not refer to the leasing of entire properties for corporate operation. It is intended to deal rather with the advantages and problems incident to leasing portions of properties to individuals who themselves, individually or in groups, do the actual mining and transportation of the ore. These individuals are sometimes called "leasers" and sometimes called "tributors." The contracts under which they work set up an independent relationship of lessor and leaser, between themselves and the mineowner or operator. This relationship has many advantages to both sides over those created by the ordinary relationship of employer and employe. From the standpoint of the owners there is no liability on independent contractors for industrial injuries, social security taxes, unemployment taxes, or the manifold restrictions of the Federal Labor Relations and Wage Hour Acts and similar state acts where they exist. As the leaser's income depends on the quantity and quality of ore produced, there is a distinct incentive for maximum production of a good grade of ore. This in turn promotes careful mining of the areas under lease. Ordinarily in mining, labor cost is a high percentage of the total cost of operation. Under a leasing system, even if the leasers be allowed to retain half of the gross values that they produce, and the owner or operator gets half, in the case of marginal ore bodies this is ordinarily more than the lessor would realize if the property were worked by day labor. In some instances mineral deposits under a leasing system may become ore, whereas under a day-labor system they would

Jan 1, 1948

By Theron Wasson

The year 1942 in Michigan was devoted largely to the development of fields discovered in 1941 but was also characterized by a great increase in prospecting for new productive horizons below the Dundee limestone. Some new fields were discovered but as yet these have shown few signs of being of major importance. Michigan's total production for 1942, of 21,754,000 bbl. of oil, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, was second only to the record year of 1939 when 22,799,000 bbl. of oil were produced. All important fields were prorated throughout the year, and it is obvious that without proration a new all-time high would have been established for the state this year. From 1925 to the end of 1942, Michigan has produced annually the following amounts of oil: Year Barrels Source 1925 4,000 1926 94,000 1927 435,000 1928 592,000 1929 4,641,000 1929 Michigan Geological Survey 1930 3,928,000 3,785,000 1932 6,925,000 1933 7,942,000 1934 0,603,000 1935 15,776,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1937 1936 11,928,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1937 16,628,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1939 1938 19,211,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1939 22,799,000 1940 19,764,000 1941 16,361,000 1942 21,754,000 Total 183,170,000 This tabulation shows the steady growth of the industry in Michigan since the first discovery of oil in 1925. Maes A map of the oil and gas fields of Michigan in 1941, published in the report for 1942, shows the main producing areas and should be referred to if information in regard to their location is desired.* The main producing zones were shown in the columnar section in the same publication. Development in Fields Reed City Field.—During 1942 the Reed City field, which ended 1941 with 112 producing oil wells, added 70 new producers to bring the total at the end of the year to 182 wells and 4700 proven acres. A south extension of the field developed during the year was in large part responsible for the increase. Approximately 9,000,000 bbl. of oil was produced from the field during the year, bringing the total accumulated production to the end of the year to roughly 11,750,000 barrels. Headquarters Field.—The Headquarters field, which started the year with ro producing oil wells, ended the year with 41 wells aid 1240 proven acres. Approximately 2,300,000 bbl. of oil was produced in 1942. Kawkawlin Field.—Although not a 1941 discovery, the Kawkawlin field has been actively developed on the 40-acre spacing plan during the last year, 42 producers having been completed, bringing the total number of wells at the end of the year to 77. Nearly 500,000 bbl. of oil was produced during the year.

Jan 1, 1943

By Theron Wasson

The year 1942 in Michigan was devoted largely to the development of fields discovered in 1941 but was also characterized by a great increase in prospecting for new productive horizons below the Dundee limestone. Some new fields were discovered but as yet these have shown few signs of being of major importance. Michigan's total production for 1942, of 21,754,000 bbl. of oil, as reported by the U. S. Bureau of Mines, was second only to the record year of 1939 when 22,799,000 bbl. of oil were produced. All important fields were prorated throughout the year, and it is obvious that without proration a new all-time high would have been established for the state this year. From 1925 to the end of 1942, Michigan has produced annually the following amounts of oil: Year Barrels Source 1925 4,000 1926 94,000 1927 435,000 1928 592,000 1929 4,641,000 1929 Michigan Geological Survey 1930 3,928,000 3,785,000 1932 6,925,000 1933 7,942,000 1934 0,603,000 1935 15,776,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1937 1936 11,928,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1937 16,628,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1939 1938 19,211,000 U.S. Bur. Mines, 1938 1939 22,799,000 1940 19,764,000 1941 16,361,000 1942 21,754,000 Total 183,170,000 This tabulation shows the steady growth of the industry in Michigan since the first discovery of oil in 1925. Maes A map of the oil and gas fields of Michigan in 1941, published in the report for 1942, shows the main producing areas and should be referred to if information in regard to their location is desired.* The main producing zones were shown in the columnar section in the same publication. Development in Fields Reed City Field.—During 1942 the Reed City field, which ended 1941 with 112 producing oil wells, added 70 new producers to bring the total at the end of the year to 182 wells and 4700 proven acres. A south extension of the field developed during the year was in large part responsible for the increase. Approximately 9,000,000 bbl. of oil was produced from the field during the year, bringing the total accumulated production to the end of the year to roughly 11,750,000 barrels. Headquarters Field.—The Headquarters field, which started the year with ro producing oil wells, ended the year with 41 wells aid 1240 proven acres. Approximately 2,300,000 bbl. of oil was produced in 1942. Kawkawlin Field.—Although not a 1941 discovery, the Kawkawlin field has been actively developed on the 40-acre spacing plan during the last year, 42 producers having been completed, bringing the total number of wells at the end of the year to 77. Nearly 500,000 bbl. of oil was produced during the year.

Jan 1, 1943

By William D. Klopp, Joseph R. Stephens

Chromium alloys were coated with silicon, alumi-nuw, and boron by pack cementation. None of these simple coatings provided adequate nitridation/oxida-tion protection for a Cr -0.17pct Y alloy substrate as shown by a substantial Increase in the ductile -brittle transition temperature after air exposure for 100 hr at 2100°F. Iron-modified silicide coatings afforded good protection, holding the transition temperature of air-exposed specimens to 350° F compared to 200° F for uncoated unexposed specimens and 800°F for un-coated exposed specimens. Additional attractive cant-binations of modi-tying elements included Fe-mo, Fe-Mo-W, Fe-,Mo-W-Ti, and V-Mo-W-Ti. THE desirability of increased operating tempera-tures as a mcans of improving the performance of ad-vanced air breathing engines has resulted in emphasis on the development of materials with high operating temperature capabilities. Chromium, because of its relatively low density (7.19 g per cu cm), high melt-ing point (3410°F), and adequate strength upon alloy-ing, is a candidate material for turbine buckets and stator vanes of advanced air breathing engines. How-even, chromium is not without severe limitations, the major one being susceptibility to nitrogen embrittle-ment upon exposure to air at high temperatures.1,2 For example, a 25-hr air exposure of a Cr-5 pct W* * All compositions in wt pct. alloy at 2100°F produces a 600°F increase in the duc-tile-brittle transition temperature.' Although dilute alloying with such elements as yttrium, lanthanum, arid thorium3,4 or strong nitride formers5 has been shown capable of reducing nitrogen embrittlement, it is apparent that some additional form of surface protection, such as coatings or claddings, will be required for long time service in air breathing engines. Studies of aluiminide6 and silicide7 coatings and of nickel-base claddingsl on chromium alloys to date have suggested that these protection systems are inadequate. Of the aluminidc systems Studied,6 a simple aluminum and an Fe-Al coating on a Cr-5 pct W-0.1 pct Y alloy showed the lowest air exposure weight gains. However, the air exposures raised the ductile-brittle transition temperature of the coated specimens to above 1600°F from an initial level in unexposed specimens of about 500°F. A second in-vestigation for protection of Cr-5 pct W-0.1 pct Y employed gas pressure bonded alloy foils as protective claddings.1 An aluminized Ni-20 pct Cr-20 pct W alloy plus an unalloyed tungsten barrier layer gave the best performance with air exposure lives based on appearance and weight gains of over 600 hr at 2100°F. However, the bend ductile-brittle transition tempera-ture was increased to at least 1000°F after 100 hr at

Jan 1, 1970

By Paul Queneau

FEW of us who waded ashore on the Norman beaches realized the importance of coal to a successful invasion. General Eisenhower and his staff had been aware of the essential need for coal and an able Solid Fuels Section had been set up under the direction of Colonel Robert P. Koenig, of Indiana. This organization met the requirements of the invading armies on their march to the Rhine. East of the Siegfried Line enemy territory, the Army Engineers were called upon for assistance. When the Engineers were advised that, in addition to their normal duties, they were to occupy and place in operation the coal mines in the Twelfth Army group area, plans were drawn up overnight and action was initiated immediately. The Sixth Engineer Special Brigade, a versatile outfit which made a notable record D-Day on Omaha Beach, was selected to handle the operation. Within 48 hours of the new assignment an advance command post was set up cm the west bank of the Rhine at Homberg, just below German-held Duisburg. The 368th Engineer General Service Regiment was assigned to the Brigade, and the British 44th Pioneer Group, including specialist personnel, was also attached. This large British unit was added because most of the mines would shortly come within the British zone of

Jan 1, 1946

By G. R. Leverant, C. P. Sullivan

Re crystallized TD-nickel mi-2Th0,) in both coated und uncoated conditions was fatigued at 1800°F at total strain ranges varying .from 0.2 to 0.75 pct. The fatigue life of uncoated inaferal, Nf, was related to the total strain range, ?eT, by (2Nf/021AeT = 0.014. A duplex Al-Cr pack coating increased the fatigue life by about a factor of two. The cracks that led to failure in both coated and uncoated material were initiated at the outer surface, indicating that the mechanical properties of the surface layers were important in determining fatigue life. Crack propagation and subsurface crack initiation in the TD-nickel occurred preferentially at grain boundaries with cavitation at thoria particle-matrix interfaces an integral part of the grain boundary fracture process. The importance of both the grain morphology developed during thermome chanical processing of TD-nickel and the distribution of thoria particle sizes to fatigue resistance are discussed. THE fatigue properties of only a few dispersion-strengthened metals have been studied at temperatures 0.5 Tm;1,2 among these have been lead and aluminum containing oxide dispersions. TD-nickel is a material of interest for application in aircraft gas turbine engines, but little fundamental information is available on its behavior under cyclic loading conditions. In this study, the low-cycle fatigue properties of TD-nickel were determined at 1800°F with emphasis on the 101-lowing; 1) the relation of the grain morphology produced during thermomechanical processing to crack initiation and propagation; 2) the role of thoria parti-cles in the fracture process; and 3) the effect of an oxidation resistant coating on fatigue life. I) MATERIAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The TD-nickel was supplied by DuPont as a 5/8-in. thick plate which had been subjected to a proprietary series of thermomechanical treatments with a final anneal at 2000°F for 1 hr in hydrogen. The composition of the material is given in Table I. At the test temperature of 1800°F, the 0.2 pct offset yield stress was 15,000 psi, and the elongation and reduction in area were 4.6 and 3.0 pct, respectively. The microstructure of this material has been previously described.&apos; Briefly, it consists of an array of lath-shaped grains, about 0.15 mm in thickness, with the long dimension of each grain parallel to the primary working direction, Fig. 1(a). The presence of very small annealing twirls, Fig. l(b ), together with the absence of extensive dislocation networks, Fig. L/C), indicated that the material was in the recrystal- Table I. Composition of TD-Nickel ThO2 2.3 vol pct C 0.0073 wt pct lex 0.01 wt pct Cr 0.01 wt pct Cu 0.004 wt pct S 0.001 wt pct Ti <0.001 wt pct Co <0.01 wt pct Ni bal lized condition. Commercial TD-nickel sheet has a similar grain size and shape, but unlike the present material is not recrystallized as evidenced by the absence of annealing twins and the presence of a well-developed dislocation substructure.4 The plate material had Young&apos;s moduli in the rolling direction of 22 x 106 psi and 13 x 106 psi at room temperature and 1800°F, respectively, indicating a texture with a strong {100}<001> component in agreement with previous observations on recrystallized TD-nickel sheet.596 The 2.3 vol pct of thoria particles were uniformly distributed although some clustering and stringering of larger particles was occasionally seen. The average diameter of the particles was 450 and the calculated mean planar center-to-center spacing was 2100Å. Two specimens were coated with a duplex A1-Cr pack coating. The coating was somewhat nonuniform from one position to another along the gage length. An area of the coating after testing is shown in Fig. 2. Electron microprobe analysis revealed the following zones in the various lettered regions indicated in Fig. 2: A) a bcc matrix of B-NiA1 with some chromium in solid solution along with a fine dispersion of a chromium-rich second phase which was probably precipitated during cooling from the test temperature to room temperature; B) fcc y&apos;-Ni,Al with some chromium in solid solution; C) porosity; D) a two-phase mixture of a chromium-rich solid solution containing nickel and aluminum and a small volume fraction of a nickel-rich solid solution having approximately the same composition as the immediately adjacent portion of region E, E) the TD-nickel substrate containing chromium in solid solution to a depth of 5 to 10 mils. As expected from the nature of the diffusion processes involved,7 the thoria particles were present only up to the layer of porosity, region C, Fig. 2. The measured thickness of the coating proper, zones A to D, after testing was 1 to 2 mils. The specimen design and testing techniques have been previously discussed.&apos; Stressing was axial and parallel to the lath-shaped grains (i.e., parallel to the rolling direction). The total strain range was controlled between zero and a maximum tensile strain varying from 0.2 to 0.75 pct. (The test at 0.2 pct total strain range was switched to load control at 1030 cycles at which point the peak tensile and compres-

Jan 1, 1970

By Donald B. Gillies

PROBABLY the most critical and difficult period in an engineer&apos;s career is that between the completion of his college work and his attainment of professional recognition and accepted status in the industrial world. Upon leaving school the young graduate breaks his immediate ties with his educational institution and in a sense finds himself adrift. At this time in his life a society like our Institute has both the responsibility and the privilege of meeting a vitally important need in his professional life. Some of these young men are Student Associates, in the year after graduation, and some are Junior Members, but all need advice and assistance. In some respects this situation will be accentuated by the war. Not only will thousands of young engineers be mustered out of military service but the process we describe generally as industrial reconversion will make necessary many readjustments in personnel. About two years ago the Institute recognized the opportunity of helping the younger member to help himself by appointing a new standing committee to be known as the Committee on Professional Development of Junior Engineers. Herbert Hoover is Honorary Chairman and it is my privilege to serve as Chairman. The name of the Committee is not entirely satisfactory but it expresses the general objective. The present article is in the nature of a progress report of the work of this Committee.

Jan 1, 1945

By C. K. Leith

IN telling the story of Canada&apos;s minerals many interesting and spectacular details will be passed over to permit pointing out some of the significant inter- national aspects. No country now has enough of all minerals for its own use. The problems of satisfaction of both national and world demands under these conditions have become international in scope, and history supplies no obvious solutions. The minerals of Canada are coming to play a prominent part in such problems. Production and Reserves In the last decade Canada has rapidly advanced in mineral production. In 1928 the total value of mineral products from Canadian sources reached 273 millions of dollars. Canada ranks first in production of nickel, first in asbestos, second in cobalt, third in gold and silver, fourth in lead and copper, and sixth in zinc.

Jan 1, 1929

By W. F. Domis, F. von Gemmingen, R. W. Whitmore, F. Garofalo

Constant-load creep-rupture tests at 1100°, 1300° and 1500°F were made on a Type-316, 18 Cr-8 Ni-ZMo, austenitic stainless steel to determine the relationship between ruptzire life and other aspects of creep behavior, The test program was designed on a statistical basis to check the variability of various creep properties and to determine emprically the dependence of minimutn creep rate and ruptzire life on initial stress, The dependence of the rupture life, tn, on the initial stress, a,, is found to be related to the stress dependence of the wrinimum creep rate, i,, and secondary creep strain, The instabilities or breaks found in the conventionual log - logt, plots can be traced to either a change in the linear dependence of log i, on log a, or to a change in secondary creep strain. In the alloy tested, rupture is found to be predowmanantly of the inter crystalline type, For this material, the secondary creep strain is -found to depend on the nature of the grain boundary precipitate, which affects grain boundary migration. It has been shown for a variety of metals and al tested at elevated temperatures under creep conditions that the empirical relationship exists between rupture life, tr, and minimum creep rate, i,. This relationship, in which C and a are in some cases independent of stress or temperature, shows in a general way that creep rupture depends on creep behavior prior to tertiary creep stage. To determine more fully the factors which control creep rupture requires, therefore, more knowledge of the relationship between rupture and creep behavior. To obtain such information, constant-load creep-rupture tests have been made on a Type-316, 18 Cr-8 Ni-2 Mo, austenitic stainless steel at 11000, 1300°, and 1500°F. These tests were designed on a statistical basis to determine the variability of the various creep properties measured and to determine empirically the stress dependence of minimum creep rate and rupture life. As a result of this work, various empirical relations have been established defining more closely the factor, C, in the relation between rupture life and minimum creep rate. This factor is found to be proportional to the amount of strain during secondary creep. The variation of secondary creep strain with rupture life and temperature is determined and its effect on rupture behavior discussed. The variability in minimum creep rate and rupture life is also dis- cussed and the dependence of these quantities on initial stress is interpreted. TEST MATERIAL AND TEST PROCEDURES The material tested is an austenitic stainless steel, AISI Type 316, of the following composition: C, 0.07 pct; Mn, 1.94 pct; P, 0.01 pct; S, 0.021 pct; Si, 0.38 pct; Cr, 18 pct; Ni, 11.4 pct; Mo, 2.15 pct; All 0.003 pct and N, 0.043 pct. The material was received as a hot-rolled 0.5-in. diam bar which was sectioned into 3.25 in. long blanks. Each blank was heat treated by holding 1/2 hr at 2000° F followed by water quenching. A 3/8-in. coupon was removed from each heat-treated blank and the microstructure was examined, the grain size determined, and the hardness measured. The microstructure was found to be uniform from blank to blank and the grain size was found to range from 4 to 6 ASTM numbers. Hardness, measured using a 20-kg load, varied between 127 and 148 Vpn. Tensile creep-rupture specimens having a 0.25 in. diam within a 1.5-in. reduced section were machined from the heat-treated blanks. Constant-load tests were made on these specimens at 1100°, 1300°, and 1500 F. Six specimens were tested at each stress level. Three creep-rupture machines were employed for tests at each temperature, two specimens being tested in each machine for each stress level. To minimize any effect due to local inhomogeneities along the length of the as-received bar the specimens were randomized before test. Each specimen was tested to rupture and in most cases an autographic extension-time curve was obtained. For very low stress levels at 1500°F no auto-

Jan 1, 1962

By Frank T. Sisco

DURING the past year the iron and steel industry of the world as a whole operated on a satisfactory basis. No discoveries nor new processes of outstanding importance were announced either here or abroad, although rumors of such were persistent. In general, the efforts of operating and research men in the iron and steel industry seemed to be confined to improving quality and reducing cost, not a new aim, for the same efforts have been noted in nearly all of the annual reviews of the industry for at least fifty years. Most published papers on blast furnace or steel-making practice were of minor importance, at least when judged by the criterion of radical change in process or product. If the number of reports in the technical journals, or articles in the trade press, is used as a basis for comparison, continuous-mill sheet is still the most important single product of the industry; papers were published detailing the results of the investigation of various phases of the

Jan 1, 1938