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By E. J. KENNEDY

THE annual dinner-dance was held in the large ball room of the Commodore hotel Wednesday evening. A total of 577 were seated at the dinner, over which President Eavenson presided as chairman and toastmaster. In introducing George C. Stone, the James Douglas Medalist, W. R. Ingalls outlined the former's association with the zinc industry. He said, in part In designing and building Palmerton, Stone erected a metallurgical monument and won the title of chief engineer of the New Jersey Zinc Co., with transferal to its New York office in 1900. There lie held forth in dignity, efficiency, and with appreciation until his retirement from active service in 1929. After a few years lie was diverted from the position of chief engineer for his company to the superior one of chief metallurgist and that gave to Stone his next big chance.... This was the conception of a research department and the ability to persuade his directors to adopt it. I shall not pretend to summarize the great things that afterward developed. I shall mention only the institution of the manufacture of lithopone in this country, the charging of the Wetherill furnace with briquets, the mechanicalization of the Wetherills, the accomplishment of continuous distilling, and most recently the introduction of reflux-refining.

Jan 1, 1935

By Hugh O?Neill

IN PREVIOUS papers,1 the author has reported the results of experiments on the straining in tension of a single crystal test piece, about 0.6 in. long, of vacuum-melted electrolytic iron containing 1.8 per cent. of silicon. The crystal was originally in the "as cast" condition, and was stressed slowly along a tetragonal axis so that slipping along conjugate gliding planes finally transformed the original cylindrical portion into a pair of fracture wedges. One of these fracture wedges was sectioned along the stress axis in a plane at right angles to the edge of the wedge. A metallographic study of this plane of -section led to the conclusion that slip had taken place in the (111) direction along (112) planes making a V shape with the stress axis. The present paper describes the results of scratch-hardness tests conducted on the same section, in order to determine the distribution of strain hardness therein, followed by annealing, and considers the resulting variations in hardness. These observations supplement those made by Krivobok2 on similar material reduced 25 per cent. by hammering (i. e., by impact) in the cold. In order to investigate ageing effects, two small crystals of the same alloy were also tested.

Jan 1, 1928

By Edward O’Toole

THe Pocahontas district occupies the extreme southern end of West Virginia, principally McDowell, Mercer and Wyoming counties, and a part of Tazewell county, in southwestern Virginia. The first record of the coal field is a report by Prof. J. P. Lesley, of Pennsylvania, about 1880, in which he mentions a coal opening at the upper end of Abbs Valley, Tazewell county, Va. C. R. Boyd, a mining engineer of Wytheville, Va., published a series of articles in 1881, mentioning coal on Indian Creek, Tazewell county, and on Horse Pen creek, which coals, he stated, extended toward the Ohio River. He also mentions the Abbs Valley coal reported by Lesley. In 1881, F. J. Kimball (who became president of the Norfolk & Western R. R. in 1883)) after examining the Scott mine in Abbs Valley, went northward across Abbs Valley Mountain to the place now known as Pocahontas, where he located what has since been called No. 3 vein of Pocahontas coal. In November, 1882, Jed Hotchkiss and others prepared a cross-section of the Flat Top Mountain coal measures, some notes on which were published by Mr. Hotchkiss, between 1880 and 1892, under the title of " The Virginias.' In May, 1881, the Norfolk & Western R. R. was organized through the purchase of the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio R. R., an old line running from Norfolk, Va., to Bristol, Tenn., with branches from Petersburg to City Point and from Glade Springs to Saltville. At that time, charters had been granted for three railroads tributary to the New River Valley, but their proposed routes would indicate that the promoters were concerned with minerals, timber, and a connection with the Chesapeake & Ohio R. R., rather than the development of any coal in the Pocahontas district. One of them was projected to extend up Bluestone River a short distance, but not far enough to reach the coal in the Bluestone Valley, and a little grading was done for a narrow-gage road between New River Station and a point in Giles county, Virginia, near the West Virginia line. All charters and railroads in this district were acquired by the Norfolk & Western R.R.

Jan 1, 1925

This is a most interesting paper and some data in it are corroborated by work I did at Watertown Arsenal some time ago with iron powder. I would like to ask Dr. Wulff to say just a little more about the compressive and tensile stresses on the surface of compacts. JOHN WULFF (author's reply).-Our work has not yet been completed; although enough data have been obtained with cylindrical compacts of iron to permit some conclusions. Briefly, in a compact 3/4 in. high and 1/2 in. in diameter pressed at 48 tons per sq. in., the residual stresses on the surface measured by X-ray diffraction techniques are as follows: The radial stresses on top center and bottom of compacts are practically zero; the longitudinal residual stresses on the side walls are near the top quarter of the compact about seven tenths that of the yield point of mild steel in tension; at the center surface of the compact they are in compression and in magnitude about 0.3 that of mild steel in tension; near the bottom, they are practically zero. F. V. LENEL.?- I was particularly interested in the work that Messrs. Wulff and Seelig reported on the influence of lubrication on the density of parts. In connection with the work of the American Society for Testing Materials on determining the green density of a compact, we ran into considerable difficulty in getting reproducible results of green density determinations. It was much easier to get a reproducible green density when the lubricant was mixed with the powder than when the lubricant was applied to the die walls; particularly when the die was not perfect-i.e., if it was somewhat rough or out of round. In this case, it was almost impossible to get reproducible green densities when the die walls were lubricated, while it was not too difficult to get reproducible

Jan 1, 1946

E. E. THUM,* Salt Lake City, Utah (written discussion?).-While the present paper is confined exclusively to the microstructure of fusion welds, it may be of interest to draw attention to certain appearances existing in resistance welds such as spot or butt-welded joints produced by the Thomson process. For instance, a butt weld between two pieces of carbon tool steel (carbon about 0.90 per cent.) will show concentric ellipsoids of the various materials from pearlite to martensite. The surfaces of demarcation are quite well defined, the center of the ellipsoid being at the intersection of the axis of the piece and the plane of the weld. Often these unannealed welds show a troostitic center; evidently this core was not quenched as rapidly as the surrounding shell. Such specimens are beautiful samples for instruction purposes. An annealed butt weld of this kind will show a very well defined central ellipsoid of decarburized, materials. It is interesting to consider the reason why this change takes place. It must be understood that the heat is on the metal for a very short time, possibly 30 sec. It is therefore evident that the decarburization, or migration, of the carbon takes place with extreme rapidity. Since no blowholes are evident in a well-made butt weld, the deoxidizing air and the products of combustion must migrate with the highest speed; second, the carbon might migrate back into the stock; or, last, a large proportion of the pearlite may be extruded with the hot metal, which forms a fin at the plane of weld. Examining these possibilities in detail, it is not probable that such deep-seated decarburization, extending with maximum effect to the very center of a 2-in. round bar, is done by reaction with the oxygen of the air. This would postulate entrance of oxygen and egress of carbon oxides in large quantity without leaving behind traces in the form of oxides or

Jan 5, 1919

By C. J. Guntner, R. P. Reed

A commercial 18Cr-8Ni iron alloy (AISI 304L) was examined in tension at 300°, 76°, 20°, and 4°K. Continuous stress-strain recordings were made, X-ray analyses at periodic stress (strain) intervals were obtained, and the magnetic measurements were taken. From this data the percentage of martensitic products [bcc(a) and hcp (E)] was computed as a function of stress (strain). It was found thatup to 15 pct E phase forms at low temperntures. The amount of E formed increases to a maximum at about 5 pct strain, then decreases. This decrease indicates the additional transformation of E to a'. The total amount of E and a' was suppressed at constant stress (strain) at 4°K as compared to 76°K. It is proposed that the suppression of E and a' is associated with the decreased mobility of extended dislocations at very low temperatures. The yield strength decreased as the temperature was depressed below room temperature and then increased rapidly near 4°K. SOME ferrous alloys which are austenitic (fcc ?) at room temperature appear to be unique in that two martensitic products (hcp e and bcc a') may form on cooling to lower temperatures or on application of mechanical stress. The most common room-temperature austenitic ferrous alloys are 18Cr, 8Ni stainless steels. Most aspects of the spontaneous transformations have been previously described for these steels.' Several previous papers have described special aspects of the stress-induced transformations at low temperatures for the stainless steels, such as the existence of the hcp phase (c) after straining at 76oK,2-7 the morphology after straining using electron microscopy,7 and the decrease in E at higher strains at 76oK.4 However, for a complete representation, one must know the stress-strain characteristics and the dependence of both martensitic products on applied stress and temperature. It is the intention of this paper to provide that documentation. To accomplish this, continuous stress vs strain recordings were made at four temperatures: 300°, 76", 20°, and 4°K for annealed AISI 304L (a commercial 18Cr-8Ni alloy). At periodic stress intervals at each temperature the integrated X-ray line intensity of a selected peak for each phase (y, E, and a') was measured. In addition, photomicrographs of the strained surfaces were taken and magnetic measurements were made. The magnetic readings can be directly converted into percent a'.',e With these measurements the percentage of each phase may be plotted as a function of stress (or strain) and test temperature. It was found that up to 15 pct E phase forms upon stressing the AISI 304L alloy at low temperatures. The E percentage increases abruptly after the alloy yields, but then decreases gradually at higher stresses. The rapid increase in e at 76°K is associated with an "easy-glide" portion of the stress-strain curve. The total amount of a' + .G is suppressed below 76°K at a constant stress or strain. The yield strength decreases down to 76°K but increases rapidly below 20°K. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Tensile test specimens were cut parallel to the rolling direction from 0.1-in.-thick sheet. Continuous stress vs strain recordings were obtained at each test temperature (300°, 76o, 20°, and 4°K) using equipment and methods described elsewhere.' The specimens which were used in the X-ray analysis were stressed to successive increments of strain at each temperature, analyzed at room temperature, then restressed at the test temperature. This procedure was repeated until approximately ten X-ray analyses had been performed with approximately 1.0 pct strain increments. The specimens had a reduced section 1 in. long, 1.2 in. wide, and 0.1 in. thick. They were electro polished prior to testing and after each strain increment. Table I lists the chemical composition, grain size, and hardness for the alloy which was used. This is the same alloy for which extensive mechanical-property tests3 and morphological studies of the spontaneous transformations' have previously been made. For the low-temperature tests (76o and 4°K) below the Ms temperature the specimens were initially cooled to the test temperature, held for 1/2 hr, then warmed and X-rayed at room temperature. The results are listed in Table 11. From earlier work8 it was known that additional transformation on the second cycle would be considerably less (-0.1 pct

Jan 1, 1964

By J. A. Heskett

NEW ZEALAND is dependent on the outside world for its ferro goods, yet it can boast of at least two well-defined iron-ore deposits; namely, Para Para limonite, 3 Fe203 + 21120 also found as lower hydrated oxides, and Taranaki iron-sand, a combined magnetite and ilmenite, 2FeO + 2Fe203 + FeO + Ti02. The former is of massive variety and the FIG. 1.-VIEW OF WORKS SHOWING IRON-SAND DEPOSITS, ALSO WHARF AND BREAK¬WATER IN THE DISTANCE. latter granular and mixed with various proportions of fine shell and siliceous sand well water-worn. This latter deposit forms the greater portion of the beach sands of the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand. It is so fine that the whole of a sample passed through a sieve of 40 meshes to the inch. The ilmenite cannot be detected by the microscope, as in the titaniferous ores of the Adirondacks, nor can it be magnetically separated, as in the titaniferous ore of Natashkwan, Canada. To all appearances it is a chemical compound of the double oxides of iron and titanium and not a mechanical mixture, as is the ore of the Adirondack deposits.

Jan 8, 1920

By H. S. George

On one occasion when it seemed desirable to reveal under the microscope not only the metallic structure of an alloy, but certain small non-metallic inclusions that are ordinarily obliterated by etching, it was discovered that, by partly eclipsing the illuminating pencil of light rays, the residual light was thrown on the object from one side and the structure was brought out in relief. At the same time, the non-metallic inclusions were retained in clear view. In this first demonstration of lighting obliquely through the objective a card was thrust part way into the light beam between the arc iris and the light filter; the shadow of the card on the filter served to locate its position. Next several stiff-paper disks of various diameters were mounted on flexible wires; some plasticine on the other end of the wires made it easy to adjust and maintain a disk at any desired position in the light beam. To facilitate manipulation, an assortment of disks was mounted on a wheel, as shown in Fig. 1. The purpose of partly eclipsing the light beam was discussed in an earlier paper.' There it was pointed out that the usual methods of illuminating opaque objects for microscopic examination lend an unnatural appearance to the view, while the new method, which has been termed conical illumination, revels the true relationship of constituents by simulating natural lighting. In nature, all objects are lighted diffusely, or by light predominating from one direction, or by a combination of diffuse and directed light. Under these conditions, objects appear to have three dimensions—they possess relief. The kind of illumination known to metallographists as vertical or axial results in an unnatural appearance, as a large proportion of the illuminating rays are parallel to the line connecting the eye with the object, a condition almost never met in nature. Microconstituents

Jan 1, 1924

By D. E. Wolfson, D. A. Reynolds, F. W. Smith

IN 1948 the U. S. Bureau of Mines began a three-phase program to evaluate the extent and quality of U. S. coking coal: 1) a factual appraisal of known recoverable reserves in beds of mineable thickness, 2) a study of preparation characteristics, and 3) a study of carbonization properties. A previous paper presented the methods used in assessing reserves.' Although this investigation is only partly completed, data on coking properties of the Pittsburgh district coals are now available. The results are presented in this article. When coals are selected for manufacture of metallurgical coke more factors must be considered than for any other major use, as no basic industry requires coal of such high quality and uniformity. This is particularly true in the Pittsburgh district, where blast furnace practice is based on use of cokes from high quality coals. Although it is true that inferior coals are carbonized in other industrial areas, both here and abroad, the Pittsburgh coals are the best economically obtainable in the required tonnages, even though they are not the most desirable for metallurgical use. In the general evaluation of suitability of coals for coke making, particular attention is given to: 1) reserve, 2) ash and sulfur content, 3) inherent properties of forming strong, well fused coke, 4) expanding characteristics, and 5) blending properties. Items 1 and 2 are covered in detail in the first two phases of the survey, and coking behavior is considered in items 3 through 5. Problems is Coal Evaluation: Although not all coal beds of immediate or potential use to the coking industry in the Pittsburgh area have been tested for their coking properties, enough tests have been made to permit certain generalized statements. Virtually all the coals that will be used in this district are from the Appalachian region, and except for high oxygen coals from outcrops or stripping operations, they are coking coals. Hence the evaluation problem is not so much that of distinguishing between coking and noncoking coals as attempting to measure quantitatively differences in the coking and expanding properties of the better coking coals. Quantitative differentiation between good coking coals, is complex, since differences in their coking abilities are frequently of about the same magnitude as the precision of the test. Small-scale tests are generally unsuitable for measuring these slight differences, and there has been gradual acceptance of pilot-scale tests. Test Methods Employed: All the data reported here were obtained in two units known as the Bureau of Mines-American Gas Association (BM-AGA) carbonization apparatus and the sole-heated expansion oven. The BM-AGA unit, which consists essentially of a cylindrical steel retort about 18 in. diam and 26 in. high, carbonizes enough coal (180 lb) to allow evaluation of the coke by standard methods of the American Society for Testing Materials. The BM-AGA carbonization procedure and methods of testing the gas, liquid, and solid products have been described.' Expanding characteristics of the coals were determined in the sole-heated expansion oven," wherein the coal charge, heated from the bottom only, is carbonized under a constant applied force and the linear expansion or contraction is measured. Although results in this oven have never been quantitatively correlated with the expansion behavior of coals in conventional slot ovens, they are useful in assessing expansion behavior. In this report discussion will be confined to results obtained from these pilot-scale units, although the following data are available for most coals: proximate and ultimate analyses, free swelling index, agglutinating value, and plasticity. Sources of Coals Tested: In selection of coals for coke manufacture, economic considerations are as important as quality, and each coke plant balances these two factors to meet requirements of the most satisfactory coke at lowest price. Although these economic factors may in some instances outbalance small differences in coke quality, they are usually specific to each coke plant and cannot be given in any general statement. Recognizing that coal and plant operating costs are beyond the scope of the survey, the USBM evaluates the coking quality of various coals without regard to their competitive economic status. For the purpose of this article, coals of interest to the Pittsburgh district are arbitrarily defined as

Jan 1, 1958

By Sherwin F. Kelly

The Geophysics Education Committee was organized in 1938 and presented its first report at the A.I.M.E. annual meeting in February, 1939, at a session held jointly with the Committee on Geophysical Methods of Exploration. REPORT OF 1939 The first task the Committee set itself was to find out in which universities the subject of geophysics was being taught, and the manner in which such instruction was given. A questionnaire was drawn up and sent out to 147 universities in the United States, Canada, and abroad. Of these 100 replied. Their answers were then tabulated and analyzed, yielding the information summarized in the following pages. Two universities, Colorado School of Mines and St. Louis University, actually maintain departments of geophysics, while 3 Canadian and 31 American universities give courses on the subject. In other institutions, 45 in the United States and 5 in Canada, more or less extended reference is made to geophysics in lectures on other subjects. Altogether, there are at least 86 universities in the United States and Canada at which students may obtain instruction of some kind in geophysics. To enter the courses in geophysics given by 33 American universities, certain prerequisites are demanded, varying with the level at which the subject matter is treated. In analyzing the prerequisites, some assumptions had to be made: one year of college mathematics was taken to mean up to, but not including, calculus, while three years was presumed to embrace a course in differential equations. On this basis, 16 per cent require only elementary college mathematics, 40 per cent require differential and integral calculus, and 31 per cent require differential equations. A few demand even more advanced mathematics, while some list no prerequisite mathematics beyond high school. Evidently a student contemplating the study of geophysics should ground himself in calculus and differential equations. In physics, similar assumptions have been made as to time required in the subject. All of the universities giving geophysics require their students to take physics first, and 34 per cent require a standing in

Jan 1, 1940

By Sherwin F. Kelly

The Geophysics Education Committee was organized in 1938 and presented its first report at the A.I.M.E. annual meeting in February, 1939, at a session held jointly with the Committee on Geophysical Methods of Exploration. REPORT OF 1939 The first task the Committee set itself was to find out in which universities the subject of geophysics was being taught, and the manner in which such instruction was given. A questionnaire was drawn up and sent out to 147 universities in the United States, Canada, and abroad. Of these 100 replied. Their answers were then tabulated and analyzed, yielding the information summarized in the following pages. Two universities, Colorado School of Mines and St. Louis University, actually maintain departments of geophysics, while 3 Canadian and 31 American universities give courses on the subject. In other institutions, 45 in the United States and 5 in Canada, more or less extended reference is made to geophysics in lectures on other subjects. Altogether, there are at least 86 universities in the United States and Canada at which students may obtain instruction of some kind in geophysics. To enter the courses in geophysics given by 33 American universities, certain prerequisites are demanded, varying with the level at which the subject matter is treated. In analyzing the prerequisites, some assumptions had to be made: one year of college mathematics was taken to mean up to, but not including, calculus, while three years was presumed to embrace a course in differential equations. On this basis, 16 per cent require only elementary college mathematics, 40 per cent require differential and integral calculus, and 31 per cent require differential equations. A few demand even more advanced mathematics, while some list no prerequisite mathematics beyond high school. Evidently a student contemplating the study of geophysics should ground himself in calculus and differential equations. In physics, similar assumptions have been made as to time required in the subject. All of the universities giving geophysics require their students to take physics first, and 34 per cent require a standing in

Jan 1, 1940

By Aureal T. Cross

THIS paper is a review of the published literature on research in coal geology, principally exclusive of resource studies, which appeared or became available during 1950 and the latter part of 1949. This report is not to be construed as being complete. The papers referred to in the bibliography are those among many more, which were read either in full or in abstract. Undoubtedly other papers were published which either escaped the author's notice or were not available to him. Those which were seen in abstract only (about one fourth of those listed) were not available in time for the inclusion of more than a notice. An outline of all papers listed in the bibliography has been arranged by subjects and reasonable subdivisions with some papers cited under more than one subject. Most papers are indexed according to the principal subject of discussion or research only as to an unusual or noteworthy section of the entire report. There will likely be some disagreement as to the quality or merit of some of the papers selected and the specialist may be supercritical of the outline or organization of papers in his field. It may be that attention has occasionally been drawn to papers reporting old information or conclusions of questionable value. Conferences and Meetings One of the best indications of the growing interest in coal geology problems in the United States is the increasing number of times this field has been the focus of attention at conferences and meetings. Notable among these are the joint meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America at El Paso, November 1949, at which the principal thesis was concerned with low rank carbonaceous fuel deposits, especially of western United States. Among the papers given which are already available were those presented by Barghoorn,'" Parry? Roe? and Parks."' At the annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America in New York, December 1949, a joint meeting of the Paleobotanical and Microbiological Sections was held for which a symposium on Microbiology in Relation to the Geologic Accumulation of Organic Complexes was organized. Publication of the six papers presented by Ralph G. H. Siu, Elso S. Barghoorn, Irving Breger, Claude E. ZoBell, James M. Schopf, and A. C. Thayson is anticipated. At the regular meetings of the Paleobotanical Section at the same time, several other papers of interest reported on coal ball studies, partial coalification of petrified wood, and floras. In Chicago, April 1950, a symposium on Applied Paleobotany was held by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in conjunction with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The five papers presented at this meeting dealt with the use of Paleozoic plant microfossils for stratigraphic work, J. M. Schopf, Devonian-Missis-sippian fossils of the black shales, Aureal T. Cross, Mesozoic plants of stratigraphic value, Th. Just, plant microfossils of the Tertiary, L. R. Wilson, and studies of the Brandon lignite, Elso S. Barghoorn. Early publication of these in the Journal of Paleontology is expected. The Nova Scotia Research Foundation and the Nova Scotia Dept. of Mines sponsored an excellent 3-day conference in June 1950, which dealt with several aspects of coal geology. Papers on coal classification, P. A. Hacquenbard, structure and sedimentation problems in Nova Scotia, T. B. Haites, new techniques of thermal analysis, W. L. White-head, geochemical investigations of Nova Scotia coals, Irving Breger, the role of fossil plant spores in coal correlation and the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing strata of the Appalachian Region, Aureal T. Cross, were given. Some discussions of these papers by those in attendance were recorded, and the entire proceedings is being prepared for publication. In September 1950, an unusual 3-day field conference was held by the Ohio and West Virginia Geological Surveys under the sponsorship of the Coal Geology Committee. This study of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, and nomenclature of the Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian coal-bearing strata of southeastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia was augmented by two discussions on associated rocks (clays and shales) and stratigraphic nomenclature at Wheeling and Morgantown, West Va. An extensive guidebook was prepared, and transcriptions of the Morgantown meeting were made. As a follow-up of the September field conference, a round-table discussion was held on this general topic at a special open meeting of the Coal Research Committee in conjunction with the November meeting of the Geological Society in Washington. Short prepared statements to invite discussion were given on each of several topics by L. M. Cline, Carl 0.

Jan 1, 1953

By Aureal T. Cross

THIS paper is a review of the published literature on research in coal geology, principally exclusive of resource studies, which appeared or became available during 1950 and the latter part of 1949. This report is not to be construed as being complete. The papers referred to in the bibliography are those among many more, which were read either in full or in abstract. Undoubtedly other papers were published which either escaped the author's notice or were not available to him. Those which were seen in abstract only (about one fourth of those listed) were not available in time for the inclusion of more than a notice. An outline of all papers listed in the bibliography has been arranged by subjects and reasonable subdivisions with some papers cited under more than one subject. Most papers are indexed according to the principal subject of discussion or research only as to an unusual or noteworthy section of the entire report. There will likely be some disagreement as to the quality or merit of some of the papers selected and the specialist may be supercritical of the outline or organization of papers in his field. It may be that attention has occasionally been drawn to papers reporting old information or conclusions of questionable value. Conferences and Meetings One of the best indications of the growing interest in coal geology problems in the United States is the increasing number of times this field has been the focus of attention at conferences and meetings. Notable among these are the joint meeting of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America at El Paso, November 1949, at which the principal thesis was concerned with low rank carbonaceous fuel deposits, especially of western United States. Among the papers given which are already available were those presented by Barghoorn,'" Parry? Roe? and Parks."' At the annual meeting of the Botanical Society of America in New York, December 1949, a joint meeting of the Paleobotanical and Microbiological Sections was held for which a symposium on Microbiology in Relation to the Geologic Accumulation of Organic Complexes was organized. Publication of the six papers presented by Ralph G. H. Siu, Elso S. Barghoorn, Irving Breger, Claude E. ZoBell, James M. Schopf, and A. C. Thayson is anticipated. At the regular meetings of the Paleobotanical Section at the same time, several other papers of interest reported on coal ball studies, partial coalification of petrified wood, and floras. In Chicago, April 1950, a symposium on Applied Paleobotany was held by the Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists in conjunction with the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. The five papers presented at this meeting dealt with the use of Paleozoic plant microfossils for stratigraphic work, J. M. Schopf, Devonian-Missis-sippian fossils of the black shales, Aureal T. Cross, Mesozoic plants of stratigraphic value, Th. Just, plant microfossils of the Tertiary, L. R. Wilson, and studies of the Brandon lignite, Elso S. Barghoorn. Early publication of these in the Journal of Paleontology is expected. The Nova Scotia Research Foundation and the Nova Scotia Dept. of Mines sponsored an excellent 3-day conference in June 1950, which dealt with several aspects of coal geology. Papers on coal classification, P. A. Hacquenbard, structure and sedimentation problems in Nova Scotia, T. B. Haites, new techniques of thermal analysis, W. L. White-head, geochemical investigations of Nova Scotia coals, Irving Breger, the role of fossil plant spores in coal correlation and the stratigraphy of the coal-bearing strata of the Appalachian Region, Aureal T. Cross, were given. Some discussions of these papers by those in attendance were recorded, and the entire proceedings is being prepared for publication. In September 1950, an unusual 3-day field conference was held by the Ohio and West Virginia Geological Surveys under the sponsorship of the Coal Geology Committee. This study of the stratigraphy, sedimentation, and nomenclature of the Upper Pennsylvanian and Permian coal-bearing strata of southeastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylvania, and northern West Virginia was augmented by two discussions on associated rocks (clays and shales) and stratigraphic nomenclature at Wheeling and Morgantown, West Va. An extensive guidebook was prepared, and transcriptions of the Morgantown meeting were made. As a follow-up of the September field conference, a round-table discussion was held on this general topic at a special open meeting of the Coal Research Committee in conjunction with the November meeting of the Geological Society in Washington. Short prepared statements to invite discussion were given on each of several topics by L. M. Cline, Carl 0.

Jan 1, 1953

By J. A. Norden

MUCH has been written concerning the hoisting equipment of various mines -throughout the country, but most of the literature on the subject, if not all, describes equipment of extraordinary capacity and the small and medium-sized outfits have been neglected. The hoisting equipment here described is capable 'of handling about 1200 tons per day. It has not been worked, to capacity, but 600 to 700 tons, together with men and materials, have been handled in two shifts without any great effort. Only one shaft extends from the surface to the lowest levels of the mine; see Fig. 1. It is composed of three compartments, two of which are used for hoisting and the third for water, air, and electrical lines, and for sinking purposes. In 1909, this shaft was raised from the 1000-ft. (304-m.) level to the 700-ft. There a station was cut and an air hoist installed. At this time all mining operations were confined to the upper levels of the mine; that is; above the 700-ft. The. ore was-dropped to this level through chutes from the 300-, 400-, 500-, and 600-ft. levels and then lowered in cars on cages to the 1000-ft., which is the main haulage adit, the mill and railroad bins being about 3000 ft. from the shaft. Orebodies were, in due time, developed on the 1000-ft. level and below. Therefore, in 1913, the shaft was sunk to the 1150-ft. level and thereafter sinking was continued at regular intervals until the 1500-ft. level was reached. But, hoisting from the 1300-ft. level was a difficult, and slow process with the antiquated air hoist, so, in 1916, it was derided to raise the shaft to the surface and install a modern, electrically operated hoist. This was completed early in 1917 and the hoist was in operation in March of that year.

Jan 8, 1920

By J. F. Ednie

SCRAP metals to the value of more than a billion and a half dollars were recovered in the United States in 1939 for further use in industry. Few people have any true conception of the magnitude of the secondary-metal industry as related to that engaged in the production of the primary, or virgin, metals; of its importance, particularly when a shortage of primary metals exists, as at present; or of the advance that has been made in standardizing and improving the quality of its products. Of the iron and steel produced in the United States in 1939 (the data used in this article are largely taken from Bureau of Mines reports for that year) just over 50 per cent came from scrap and slightly less than 50 per cent from ore. Of the principal nonferrous metals-aluminum, anti-mony, copper, lead, nickel, tin, and zinc-63 per cent came from domestic ores and 37 per cent from scrap. Fig. 1 presents graphically the relative tonnage and value of primary and secondary production of ferrous and nonferrous metals. In this chart only purchased secondary metals are considered, the figures being exclusive of "home" or "plant" scrap which amounts to rather large figures in the iron and steel industry. Incidentally, the chart shows that from the tonnage standpoint the iron and steel industry is some twenty times larger than the nonferrous industry, though with regard to the value of the product the ratio drops to about two to one.

Jan 1, 1941

By William B Price, Ralph W. Bailey

Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus are now used in the brass industry as standard inhibitors in preventing dezincification in condenser tubes. This subject has been thoroughly covered by Barry,l who de- scribed the testing procedure by total immersion of suitable specimens in a I per cent cupric chloride solution at definite temperatures. Effects of dezincification were then determined by loss in tensile strength and elongation of the test specimens after definite periods of immersion. In the crystallography of the chemical elements as tabulated by William Hume-Rothery,2 phosphorus (metallic), arsenic, antimony and bismuth are placed in group V-B and the type of crystal lattice for arsenic, antimony and bismuth is given as rhombohedral. The Metals Handbook3 lists them as 'rhobomhedral hexagonal," with the additional notation that for arsenic this is the ordinary form at 20°C.; other modifications known or probable at other temperatures. In view of these statements and of the fact that phosphorus, arsenic and antimony are effective in increasing the resistance to dezincification, it was natural to assume that bismuth would act in the same manner. A series of tests was therefore carried out employing the methods described by Barry. Much to our surprise, bismuth did not inhibit dezincification, but rather seemed to accelerate it. Tensile-test speci-

Jan 1, 1942

By Ralph W. Bailey, William B. Price

Arsenic, antimony and phosphorus are now used in the brass industry as standard inhibitors in preventing dezincification in condenser tubes. This subject has been thoroughly covered by Barry,l who de- scribed the testing procedure by total immersion of suitable specimens in a I per cent cupric chloride solution at definite temperatures. Effects of dezincification were then determined by loss in tensile strength and elongation of the test specimens after definite periods of immersion. In the crystallography of the chemical elements as tabulated by William Hume-Rothery,2 phosphorus (metallic), arsenic, antimony and bismuth are placed in group V-B and the type of crystal lattice for arsenic, antimony and bismuth is given as rhombohedral. The Metals Handbook3 lists them as 'rhobomhedral hexagonal," with the additional notation that for arsenic this is the ordinary form at 20°C.; other modifications known or probable at other temperatures. In view of these statements and of the fact that phosphorus, arsenic and antimony are effective in increasing the resistance to dezincification, it was natural to assume that bismuth would act in the same manner. A series of tests was therefore carried out employing the methods described by Barry. Much to our surprise, bismuth did not inhibit dezincification, but rather seemed to accelerate it. Tensile-test speci-

Jan 1, 1942

By Allan J. Clark

It is nearly three years since the metallurgy of the Homestake ore was discussed with considerable thoroughness, in a paper1 read before the Institution of .Mining and Metallurgy. Certain changes have been made in this period which are perhaps of sufficient interest to justify a brief description, and it is chiefly with such details and miscellanies that this paper will deal. In the circumstances, a certain amount of repetition is inevitable, but matter treated of in the former paper will be referred to here only when it is necessary for the sake of coherency. For full descriptions of equipment and technique, the former paper should be consulted. The mineralized slates and schists which constitute the ore vary considerably in composition, but the unoxidized ore, perhaps constituting the major part of the reserves, contains either chlorite or hornblende (cummingtonite), with quartz, carbonates of lime, magnesia and iron, and arsenopyrite, pyrite, and pyrrhotite. Ferrous minerals predominate, and this fact has been an important factor in determining the metallurgical treatment. With one or two exceptions the minerals noted are of relatively high specific gravity, and the ore as a whole is exceptionally heavy, many determinations giving an average specific gravity of 3.00. This high specific gravity presents one decided advantage, when the cost of treatment is compared with operations elsewhere, in that the ton, almost universally the basic unit, represents a volume probably less by 10 per cent. than that of many gold ores. On the other hand, this high gravity renders more difficult the discharge of pulp from mortars, its distribution on amalgam tables, and its transportation in launders. In the same way, as attesting the usual balance of such variations of different ores, it may be noted that the needle-like fibers of hornblende (cummingtonite), interlacing throughout the mass, render the ore more difficult to crush than would be anticipated, but on the other hand assist

Jan 1, 1916

By Roscoe C. Clark

A study of the effect of various corrosive waters on five different types of cements indicated that those cements containing less than 5 per cent tricalcium aluminate were the most resistant to corrosion. INTRODUCTION Oil field experience indicates that some formation waters are excessively corrosive to some cements. A study has been made to determine the most corrosive waters and the relative resistance of various types of cement to these corrosive waters. PROCEDURE This study of the corrosion of cement was limited to an evaluation of the effect of various corrosive waters on five different types of cements. A determination was made of the types of cements which offer the greatest resistance to corrosion and of the chemical contents of waters found to be the most destructive to cements. The laboratory tests were conducted by immersing small cylinders of 20 samples of set cement in various corrosive waters. The initial mixing of most of the cement slurries was done using Tulsa tap water as the mixing water; however, a few of the slurries were mixed using a sulfate water as the mixing water. When the 20 samples had been immersed for a period of nine months, they were removed from their corrosive baths, inspected and photographed. The field tests were conducted by placing ten cement specimens, each contained in a screen wire thimble, in the gas anchors of insert pumps in wells in six different fields. The specimens were observed whenever it was necessary to pull the pumps and were returned to the 1aboratory when deterioration had reached a serious state. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS In both the field and laboratory tests the resistance of the different cements to corrosion was determined by the condition of the samples and the number of samples of each that were in good condition at the end of the immersion period. Table I lists the various cements tested in the order of their resistance to corrosion with the most resistant at the top and the least resistance at the bottom. An analysis of Table I reveals that the upper half of the table predominates in slow set and sulphate resisting cement.: (low 3CAO.A12O3 content) while in the lower half the port-land and high early strength cements are in the majority. Of the last two the high early strength cements appear to offer less resistance to sulfate water corrosion. An investigation of the composition of the cements listed in Table I indicated that as a general rule the cements containing less than five per cent tricalcium aluminate will exhibit the greatest resistance to corrosion. The destructive action of various corrosive waters was compared by listing the waters in the order of those containing the largest number of samples that failed completely. These ratings are presented in Table II with the most corrosive waters listed first and the least corrosive last. Figs. 1 and 2 show the end views of cement samples which had been immersed in the baths of five per cent MgSO, water and the five per cent Na2SO4 water respectively in the laboratory. These .pictures are representative of the results obtained and present a pictorial evaluation of the corrosive resistance of various types of cements.

Jan 1, 1950

By P. F. MINISTER

AT Lime Spur, Mont., the East Butte Copper Mining Co. has been quarrying limestone for twenty years. The quarry is beside the Northern Pacific R. R. in the Jefferson River canyon, 4 ½ miles east of Cardwell, at Lime Spur, Montana. HISTORY This quarry was opened early in 1900 by Dan Morrison of Whitehall, the discoverer of the Morrison cave, to supply a demand for smelter flux. Limestone was sold to the Pittsmont smelter of The East Butte Copper Mining Co. and to the Butte Reduction Works. As no particular effort was made at the quarry to select the rock that delivered to the smelters was unduly high in magnesia and impurities. The East Butte com¬pany, therefore. Bought the quarry. in 1909 and confined operations to the high-grade beds in order to supply rock of the desired purity for its own smelter and the Butte Reduction Works until the latter shut down. It also developed a market for some of its rock with the sugar factories. The latter market increased until in later years all rock, larger than 4 in. in size over a bar grizzly, was being shipped to the sugar factories, and the rock smaller than 4 in. was being used as a flux in the blast furnaces at the Pittsmont smelter. In 1924, the East Butte concluded a contract with the Anaconda company for the treatment of its ores, and the Pittsmont -smelter -was shut down: which made the minus 4-in. rock a useless by-product. Since there was not enough revenue in the sugar rock alone and also because of limited waste room it became necessary, if Lime Spur was to continue to operate, to increase- the proportion of plus 4-in. rock and to develop a market for the minus 4-in.

Jan 1, 1930