Search Documents

By H. Y. Bassett

THIS paper attempts to show the various major operations used in nonferrous tube mills and does not necessarily represent the current practices at the two plants of the Wolverine Tube Div., of Calumet and Hecla Consolidated Copper Co. Inc. The operations now utilized in the production of tubing are quite varied and show the continual interest and advance metallurgically and mechanically to produce the best quality at the lowest cost. Naturally, any advance or lowering of cost is dependent on large production runs, which mean longer machine running time with maximum worker productivity. Standardization of tube sizes and elimination of unnecessary alloys are therefore very necessary, otherwise the development of costly new production machines would be of little benefit to the consumer as a whole. It should be noted that in such a short presentation it is impossible to describe in any detail the major operations. The short descriptions, it is hoped, will enable all who are interested to obtain a general idea of present, day practices in the copper tube producing field. Fig. I is a flowchart or sequence of operations showing the steps usually employed in tube production. RAW MATERIALS Quality starts with the raw material, and it is absolutely necessary that raw material be controlled and held to rigid specifications. Little need be said, however, regarding the raw materials for the casting of bars or billets, as the material always is purchased and checked against the various governing A.S.T.M. specifications. CASTING Casting, as is indicated in Fig. I, is quite varied and for convenience can be classified into two groups: The casting of solid billets, and the casting of hollow tubes, each of which is the base for subsequent operations. In the melting of the raw materials various types of furnaces are used, and the selection of any one is dependent on many factors outside the scope of this paper. However, as of general interest, a short description will be made of each. Induction Furnace (Low Frequency) This is popular in the melting of copper-base alloys, Fig. 2. In the induction furnace the principle of an inefficient transformer is used for the production of the necessary melting heat. The primary coil is.arranged around a transformer core made of high permeability silicon steel sheet. The secondary circuit is through a melting channel around the primary coil and opens into a hearth which contains the main charge. The heat is generated only in the melting channel, but because of the stirring action there is a constant flow of metal around the channel, which when mixing with the charge causes very rapid melting. The volatilization losses are very low as the furnace atmosphere above the charge is heated only by the heat from the melting metal. The stirring action, however, makes the use of any slag cover difficult. Such furnaces- must be started with molten

Jan 1, 1951

By E. H. Hamilton

THE furnace on which the following investigation was based had dimensions 48 by 160 in., and was in continuous operation during the three days of the test. The average charge consisted of PER CENT. LB. PER HOUR Bed ore?14.5?2,980 Roast from Dwight-Lloyds?44.5?9,160 Siliceous ore?3.5?720 Iron flux?2.1?430 Battery plates?0.5?103 Lime rock?23.9?4,925 Briquettes?4.0?825 Scrap iron?2.1?430 M. P. slag?4.2?865 L. P.speiss?0.7?142 Total 100.0 THE furnace on which the following investigation was based had dimensions 48 by 160 in., and was in continuous operation during the three days of the test. The average charge consisted of PER CENT. LB. PER HOUR Bed ore?14.5?2,980 Roast from Dwight-Lloyds?44.5?9,160 Siliceous ore?3.5?720 Iron flux?2.1?430 Battery plates?0.5?103 Lime rock?23.9?4,925 Briquettes?4.0?825 Scrap iron?2.1?430 M. P. slag?4.2?865 L. P.speiss?0.7?142 Total?100.0?20,580

Jan 1, 1924

By J. G. Thompson

PROJECT 8411 of the U. S. Bureau of Standards, sponsored by the Iron and Steel Division of the A.I.M.E., is an attempt to define more concisely than has been possible heretofore the accuracy and the Limits ' of usefulness of the ' various methods now in use for the determination of oxygen as it exists in ferrous materials. It originated in correspondence between John Johnston and other metallurgists, and was brought to the attention of the Iron and Steel Division of the Institute at the Annual Meeting in February, 1933. As reported in MINING AND MET,ALLURGY, Vol. 14, page 152, March, 1933, "Dr. Johnston introduced, and those present adopted, a resolution that the Iron and Steel Division of the A.I.M.E., believing that a careful comparison of the several methods now in use for the analysis of steel for nonmetallic elements such as oxygen is highly desirable, heartily endorses the proposal that the U. S. Bureau of Standards act as a clearing house " in this matter, undertaking the final preparation and allocation of identical samples to those laboratories willing to collaborate in this important question, and collate the results re- ported back to the Bureau.'"

Jan 1, 1934

By T. Egleston

THE materials containing copper which are refined in the United States, are, for the most part, the native, coppers of Lake Superior. Until quite recently but little pig copper was made for sale, and that came principally from the pure sulphurous ores of New England and the South, and was generally sold to refineries not far from the ore furnaces. A small amount found its way into the market which was produced either as the by-product of the treatment of gold and silver ores, or as the result of the treatment of impure copper ores; but both these grades, on account of the impurities they contained, were looked on with suspicion, and were not sought for. All the grapes of pig copper are sold by the unit of copper contents, a great reduction being made in the price when impurities are present. There are at the present time only three works which treat native copper, the two of the Detroit and Lake Superior Copper Company, and the works of C. G. Hussey & Co., in Pittsburgh. There are a few works which smelt sulphurous ores and refine their pig; besides these there are a few small works where pig copper is refined only. Some of these purchase black copper, refine scrap, or simply refine such grades of ingot copper as are found in the market, but mostly that from Lake; Superior, for the purpose of getting it into such shapes that can be handled commercially to advantage, such as in making large plates or high grades of wire for electrical purposes. A number of such works are situated in the Naugatuek Valley and elsewhere in New England. The recent discovery, of valuable ores in Arizona makes it probable that within a few years the refining of copper in the United States will make great developments. Up to the time of the discovery of the mines on Lake Superior, only a very small quantity of native copper had ever been found, not sufficient to justify the erection of works for its special treatment. It had, besides, never been found in very Large masses, so that the discovery of great-blocks of it presented serious difficulties, not only in mining it,† but in bringing it into a merchantable condition. It seemed a very simple process to melt these large masses, * Road at the Lake Superior Meeting, August, 1880. †Transactions American Institute Mining Engineers, vol. vi, page 2S2.

Jan 1, 1881

By Charles A. Stetefeldt

This treatise is the sequel of a paper on "Russell's Improved Process for the Lixiviation of Silver-ores," etc., read at the Chicago meeting, in May, 1884, and published in the Transactions, vol. xiii., page 47. The facts it presents are principally compiled from Mr. Russell's notes on his practical experience gained in various places where the Russell process has been introduced. For a complete understanding of this paper a perusal of my former one is desirable, as can be seen from the frequent references here made to it. All silver-ores that do not carry a large percentage of lead or copper can be treated by Russell's process with success and economy. I do not mean to create the impression that from ores containing considerable quantities of lead and copper a high percentage of the silver cannot be extracted by this process. Such ores, however, will, in many localities, be reduced to better advantage by smelting. In case lead-bearing silver-ores are suitable for concentration, it may be profitable to concentrate the ore by Krom's dry system, obtaining a smelting-product high in lead, and to lixiviate the tailings and the dust. This plan has been adopted in a mill recently erected in Cortez District, Nevada. The dry system of concentration deserves the preference because it delivers the tailings and the dust in a condition ready for chloridizing-roasting. In wet concentration the drying of the tail ings would be expensive, and there would be a considerable loss of silver in slimes. Oxidized ores, containing silver chloride and lead minerals, may be lixiviated after crushing, and the tailings may be concentrated for lead. In this case wet concentration would be most suitable. This has been done at the Old Telegraph Mine, Utah. I would give, however, the preference to dry concentration in all cases which, of course, requires that concentration should precede lixiviation. The Russell process is also adapted to the treatment of tailings resulting from ores which have been worked either by the old

Jan 1, 1887

SME Membership Directory Listings of record March 31, 1072 SOCIETY OF MINING ENGINEERS OF AIME

Jan 7, 1972

By J. L. SILSBEE

THE existence of large saline deposits in that flat arid basin, known as the Great Salt Lake Desert, has long been recognized, but the extent and great commercial value of these deposits has not been generally appreciated. That a very considerable interest has recently developed is indicated by the fact that about 263 prospecting permits-each covering about 2560 acres of land in this Desert-have been issued under the Potash Leasing Act (Act of 0ct. 2, 1917-40 Stat. 297), and patents granted on approximately 40,000 acres. It is reported that patents and leases have, or will be applied for on an additional 80,000 acres in the basin. , Tests have been made on probably less than 10 per cent. of the total area of the basin, but these have proved a practically unlimited supply of brine available -sufficient, probably, to. furnish the potassium and magnesium chloride requirements of this country for at least a hundred years.

Jan 1, 1925

By A. D. Wilkinson

A CROSS-SECTION of the converter aisle through one of the converters and reverberatories is shown in Fig. 5. The aisle is 280 ft. long by 60, ft. wide by 681 ft. to the roof trusse, which have a 63-ft. span and are us )ported by steel columns spaced at 2b-ft. centers. Two 80-ton electric trails, supplied by the Welman Smith .Owen Engineering Co., with 20-ton auxiliary lifts, serve this building. Matte shells and converter-slag shells are dumped into heavily con¬structed flat-bottom bins located on the south side of the converter aisle and 1.0 ft. above the floor. The material is broken by ball and by hand, shoveled off into ladles for unloading on to the reverberatory charge floor, and charged into the furnace as previously mentioned.

Jan 1, 1934

By E. P. Pfleider

Important economic planning by industries, companies, financial firms and governments is predicated on estimates of future growth potential. Prior to the passage of the Taconite Amendment by the people of the State in November 1964, various admittedly conservative forecasts were made of the future of Minnesota's iron ore industry. Since that date, 3 new taconite plants are under construction, 2 are being expanded, one has just gone "on stream," and a seventh is in the design stage. These plants have a total capacity of about 35 million tons of pellets annually. The pessimism of 1964 today is being replaced by unbounded optimism. In the light of such recent developments, it becomes essential to update forecasts related to production, employment and capital investments. New projections show 50 to 58 million tons of pellet production from Minnesota by 1975. This tonnage, together with some 6 to 8 million of natural ores, should provide an annual full-time employment of 15,000 by the mining companies, plus 700 in related railroad and power producing activities and 1000 in plant construction. Total capital investment in new plants should reach $1.5 billion by 1975 and $2 billion by 1990. These current estimates indicate that the conservative goals as set in 1964 for the year 1990 should actually be achieved by 1975 or 1980. BACKGROUND Various forecasts1,2,3 have been made of the future consumption and production of iron ores within the United States. The most recent of these is by Harrison,1 delivered at the American Mining Congress meeting in Las Vegas in October. His estimates reflect the latest iron ore developments on a world wide front as well as the accelerating trend toward pellets. Minnesota's Natural Resources council prepared a detailed report in 1964 outlining the various factors that affect the future of Minnesota's iron ore industry. It presented estimates predicated on the

Jan 1, 1967

By William H. Hallahan

The Friedensville zinc mine of The New Jersey Zinc Company is located about four miles south of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania in the Saucon Valley, an infolded and down faulted block of Cambro-Ordovician carbonate sediments surrounded by hills of pre-Cambrian gneiss and Cambrian quartzite except where breached by Saucon Creek at its entrance into the Lehigh River. The Beekmantown formation of lower Ordovician age is the host for zinc and limonite ores, the former occurring in the lower dolomitic portion thereof and the latter in the upper interbedded dolomite and limestone portion of the section. The Beekmantown is overlain unconformably by the Jacksonburg of middle Ordovician age and according to Miller (2) underlain conformably by about 2500 feet of Cambrian dolomites and 200 feet of the basal Cambrian Hardyston quartzite. Igneous rocks, younger than the Cambro-Ordovician carbonate rocks, are absent in the vicinity of the ore deposits. The major structure is a N60°E-trending saddle-shaped doubly plunging anticline overturned to the north. A syncline lies to the north of the anticline. A thrust fault of substantial displacement repeats the south limb of the anticline. The ore consists of sphalerite and pyrite, along with gangue dolomite and quartz, filling and replacing the sedimentary type matrix of a strata-bound solution collapse breccia in the dolomitic portion of the lower Beekmantown. This breccia was produced in pre-Jacksonburg time as a consequence of uplift, erosion, and development of a karst topography and subsurface drainage system in the Beekmantown. Deposits of both zinc and limonite are present on the vertical north limb, on the crest and on the gently dipping (25°) south limb of the Friedensville anticline; consequently, there is no preferred structural setting for mineralization. Rather this distribution supports the view that the folding is post-ore. Features confirming this view are the development of flow cleavage in the breccia matrix, the deformation of some of the sphalerite, and the fracturing of the pyrite mineralization therein. There is nothing to indicate that the age of mineralization is other than Ordovician and older than Taconic deformation. In the absence of intrusive igneous activity younger than the ore host, the writer suggests that submarine volcanic exhalations associated with the volcanic activity recorded in the eastern eugeosynclinal facies of the Ordovician may be the source of the metal ions.

Jan 1, 1968

By Alan M. Bateman

Before World War II we proudly considered that we were the nation of all the world most richly endowed in mineral resources. We knew it was no accident that those countries abundantly supplied with mineral resources became the great manufacturing nations, and the politically and militarily strong ones; and that our own great industrial cities sprang up where coal and iron met. We all reallized, especially we of the mining profession, that the energy of fuels and the solidity of metals spelled industrial growth and in turn industrial might and that other nations came to regard mineral self-sufficiency as one of the chief goalsof economic nationalism.

Jan 1, 1949

By OTTO HERRES

TITANIUM is estimated to be the ninth most plentiful element, ranking after iron, aluminum, and magnesium, and ahead of copper, lead, and zinc. Vast quantities of titanium are widespread throughout the world in ore deposits and beach sands. Before the war, processing plants were operated in England, France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Norway, Russia, Australia, United States, and Japan. In spite of its widespread occurrence, however, the U. S. Department of Justice has held the titanium industry to be a world monopoly and action was taken in the Federal court during the summer of 1945 to enjoin international patent and marketing agreements and to restore free competition. Possibly the rather surprising lack of public familiarity with this industry of international importance arises from its astonishingly rapid development and growth in the strong hands of some of the greatest chemical companies in the world, including the important foreign companies, Imperial Chemical Industries (British), Montecatini (Italian), I. G. Farben (German), and Titan Kogko Kabushiki Kaisha (Japanese). The rapid growth of the titanium industry in the United States is indicated by a tenfold increase of ore imports in the 1930 to 1940 decade before the war began to affect shipments from overseas. The fact that the industry formerly derived practically all ore for chemical processing in American plants from foreign sources probably also accounts for lack of general public knowledge of titanium. In 1939, to meet the requirements of increasing demand for the white pigment. titanium dioxide, more than 250,000 tons of titanium concentrates moved to this country, principally from the Travancore coast of India where the ilmenite concentrate from the beach sand runs as high as 60 per cent in titanium dioxide. Global warfare put a stop to shipping and thus gave rise to the development of titanium mining on a substantial scale in the United States during 1941.

Jan 1, 1946

By R. D. Rubright, Owen J. Hart

In the Bingham district over a span of more than 90 years, 43,947,104 tons of "non-porphyry" copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver ore have been mined from a folded and faulted alternating series of Pennsylvanian and Permian limestones and sandstones and from some Tertiary intrusives. This ore came from six major mine areas located east, south, and west of the Bingham stock, site of Kennecott's porphyry copper deposit. The sediments were affected by varying degrees and types of metamorphism within 2000 feet or more of the Bingham stock. The intrusives consisting of the mineralized Bingham and the unmineralized Last Chance stocks and numerous dikes and sills of granite and monzonite were intruded into the asymmetrical northwest-trending and plunging Bingham syncline. Extrusives, although present, contain no ore. The bulk of the non-porphyry ore in the district was found above the Midas thrust. The primary ores are found in three major types of deposits: concordant bedding fissures, crosscutting fissures, and replacement deposits. These deposits consist of both copper and lead-zinc ore bodies that contain various amounts of gold and silver. These are in places roughly zoned both laterally and vertically and have been mined for up to 10,000 feet outward from the center of the Bingham stock and up to 5000 feet vertically below the surface. Secondary ore was of minor importance and was found in and under the oxidized zone at shallow depths. Genetically the Bingham stock, the ores, and related phenomena have had a common source.

Jan 1, 1968

By B. VISWANATH

T HE Mysore iron works, at Bhadravati, about 2000 ft. above sea level in the Shimoga district of Mysore, British India, is served by a meter gage branch line of the Mysore State Railways. The works which were designed and erected by Perin & Marshall, who still act as consulting engineers, are surrounded by a thickly wooded country which sup- plies about 400 tons per day of wood for fuel. The ore deposits lie 20 miles to the south, and limestone quarries are close by the works. The Bhadra river sup- plies the works and the town with the necessary quantity of water. Dwelling houses for the employees

Jan 1, 1930

By Thomas B. Douglas

INSTRUMENTATION in the process industries can no longer be regarded as a convenience, but rather an absolute necessity. Although many chemical processes must already be conducted with instruments, every properly designed application of automatic process control will improve operation: 1) the product will be more uniform and of higher quality; 2) the manual labor saved will reduce cost; 3) uniformity of flow and uniform control of process will increase production; and 4) surges will be eliminated, making it possible to operate equipment near ultimate capacity at all times. Industrial instruments fall into two general classifications-those that measure and those that measure and control. The cement industry has been using instruments for a number of years, particularly in the burning process, primarily for indicating and recording. Automatic process control makes additional use of these instruments, and others, to control variables. Assisted by the instrument manufacturers, engineers at Ideal Cement CO. achieved considerable progress in determining how well the usual recording instruments could be made to control various phases of cement-making. The results of these experiments were used to make the new plant at Houston as wholly automatic as possible.

Jan 2, 1958

By P. A. Beck, M. V. Nevitt

All binary and a number of ternary u alloys formed by first long period transition elements were examined and found to be ferromagnetic at low temperatures. The Curie temperatures for these alloys were measured. It was found that the correlation of the Curie temperature with composition may be described qualitatively in terms of the contributions of the various component atomic moments to the saturation moment of the alloy. Ternary Fe-Cr-Mo u phase alloys were also found to be ferromagnetic, with a Curie temperature dependent on the iron content and largely independent of the unit cell dimensions. Similar relations were found for the Co-Fe-Cr and the Co-Cr-Mo a alloys, where the Co + Fe content appears to determine the Curie temperature. RECENTLY, it has become increasingly evident that the u phase is some kind of an "electron compound." Several papers1-' discussed the empirical correlation between the composition of the various u phases in alloys of the transition elements and the distribution of electrons in the partially filled d-levels of the component atoms. However, a picture of the latter can be formed only in a more or less intuitive manner, as in the Pauling theory," and the rigorous treatment of these problems is at present prevented by lack of adequate knowledge of the electronic structure of the transition elements in the metallic state. It appeared reasonable to expect that investigation of the magnetic properties, which are related to d-shell electrons, may help in clarifying the physical nature of the foregoing empirical correlation. Qualitative tests of samples of various compositions have shown that certain u alloys become ferromagnetic at liquid nitrogen temperature." The present investigation was undertaken to determine whether or not low temperature ferromagnetism is characteristic of a large variety of u alloys and to establish how the Curie temperatures of ferromagnetic u alloys are influenced by changes in composition and in lattice parameter. In the first portion of the in- vestigation, Curie temperatures were measured for a series of u alloys containing either vanadium or chromium with one or two of the elements manganese, iron, cobalt, or nickel. In the second phase of the work, data were obtained on the Curie temperature of ternary (Fe, Co, Cr)a, (Fe, Cr, Mo)a, and (Co, Cr, MO)U alloys, as a function of composition and of interatomic spacing. Experimental Procedures High frequency vacuum melting in high purity re-crystallized alumina crucibles was employed in the preparation of the u alloys, using metals whose lot analyses are given in Table I. Approximately two-thirds of the alloys were analyzed chemically, the analytical results being in acceptable agreement with the intended compositions, as seen in Tables I1 and 111. The specimens were annealed for homogen-ization in an atmosphere of purified 92 pct He and 8 pct H, mixture or in evacuated and sealed Vycor tubes at temperatures from 780" to 1300°C, depending on the temperature range of the u phase field for the particular composition. The annealing temwerature and time for kach alloy are given in Tables 11 and 111. Curie points were determined by an induction method; the change with temperature of mutual inductance between two coils was observed when the i-u specimen was inserted into the flux path between the coils. The transformer consisted of three coils each containing 1200 turns of 0.0050 in. diam enameled copper wire. The center coil, P in Fig. 1, served as the primary coil, and was linked magnetically with each of the two secondary coils, S, and S? which were connected in series opposition. The primary coil, P, was energized by an audio-oscillator, set at a frequency of 500 cycles per sec, while the signal from the transformer secondary circuit,

Jan 1, 1956

By Albert J. Phillips

FOR the most part, recent changes in nonferrous physical metallurgy have been gradual and of a transition nature rather than abrupt modifications of existing methods. Development of new alloys containing vital constituents in what formerly would have been considered minute amounts has necessitated more precise control of metallurgical procedure than ever before. Realization of the remarkable effects of minute amounts of specific foreign elements in many alloys has brought about a revolutionary control in the selection of even the most commonplace raw materials. In addition, recognition of the widespread occurrence of precipitation hardness in metal systems, and the utilization of many of these, has emphasized not only the need for precise temperature control but also the necessity for considering the time factor in its effect upon properties in the treatment of most metals. These needs have caused the development and widespread installation of equipment that permits precision of control undreamed of a generation ago.

Jan 1, 1935

By H. K. Najarian

AT Josephtown, Pa., on the south hank of the Ohio River about thirty miles northwest of Pittsburgh, is the Josephtown electrothermic zinc smelter, which operates as a custom smelter receiving both domestic and foreign concentrates. Constructed in 1930, the plant was designed to produce zinc oxide and to process 124 tons per day of zinc concentrate obtained mainly from the Company's New York State mines. Zinc condensing equipment was developed in conjunction with the St. Joe electrothermic. furnace and commercial production of zinc metal started in 1936. Expansion of the plant and equipment during 1939 and 1940 brought the processing. capacity to upwards of 300 tons of concentrate per day; and the plant operated at peak capacity during the war years, earning the Army-Navy "E" award and three subsequent stars. A postwar plant expansion is now under way, designed to increase the capacity to 500 tons per day of concentrate, with an estimated daily production of 160 tons of zinc metal of various grades, about 100 tons of zinc oxide, and 425 tons of sulphuric acid as major products.

Jan 1, 1947

By Northcutt Ely

This chapter deals with the systems of laws by which governments regulate the exploration for and production of the minerals within their jurisdictions. It is a summary, restricted by necessary space limitations, of material assembled by the author for a publication of the United States Bureau of Mines, "Summary of Mining and Petroleum Laws of the World," (Information Circular 80 1 7, 196 1. ) The present study is organized in three parts, dealing with (1) the historical background of these legal systems, (2) laws of the United States, and (3) laws of other countries of the world. The reader's attention is invited to the acknowledgments at the end of the chapter, which inadequately express the appreciation due those who have assisted in the collection of this material. Part I. Historical Development of Major Western Systems of Land Tenancy with Respect to the Ownership and Control of Minerals The use of metals in primitive societies was largely confined to the manufacture of weapons for self-preservation. The ruler's control over copper, then bronze, then iron, was essential to maintenance of his own ascendancy at home and his group's position against neighbors who had access to similar metals. Ancient societies were thus characterized by the ruling group's ownership of minerals and metals. The Egyptian civilization, which emerged in the fourth millenium B.C. upon the agricultural subjugation of the lower valley of the Nile, was responsible for extensive development of the upper valley as a source of mineral wealth. The production of gold during the height of that civilization has been estimated at $30,000,000 per year, thus equaling the early placers of California and Australia. The mines of Egypt were the property of the Pharaohs and were controlled at their direction. Greek mining developed a different scheme of land tenancy which more closely resembled modem concepts. Development of mineral resources was

Jan 1, 1964

In the Bowen Basin of central Queensland, coal production has gone from virtually nothing in 1961 to more than 24 million tons today4ut there's a cloud over this success.

Jan 1, 1977