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By Douglas R. Cook

Exploration record In preparing this paper, a list of world class discoveries prepared in 1983 has been updated. In both surveys, the following criteria were used in the definition of world class discoveries: • deposits that are continuously operated and consistently return a profit even in periods of low metal prices; • deposits large enough to significantly affect a medium sized corporation's profits; and • these deposits should be in the lower one-third cost per unit of metal produced for all similar deposits. Only 70 discoveries in the last 40 years qualified as world class deposits using these criteria. Unfortunately, this restricted population was too low to develop meaningful trends. The numbers were therefore enlarged to include all significant discoveries. The principal feature of a significant discovery is that its size and grade would yield more than $500 million in revenue using average metal prices for the last five years. A significant deposit should also meet some of the standards for a world class deposit. A tabulation of these deposits are shown in Table 1. The number of discoveries increased to 166 from 70 using the revised classification. The relationship between the number of discoveries per year and their location by continents was prepared from these data. Figure 1 shows the number of discoveries per year for the nonCommunist world. It also shows estimated and actual nonCommunist world exploration expenditures per year and the commodity price index. These data show that modern exploration started in the late 1940s, with the tempo picking up rapidly in the 1950s. The maximum discovery rate occurred in 1962. Thereafter, the discovery rate gradually declined to the present. This occurred despite a real increase in expenditures from about $200 million/a in 1955 (1982 constant dollars) to more than $900 million/a in 1980. Thus, these data suggest a significant decrease in the exploration success ratio (total exploration expenditures a year divided by the number of significant discoveries) in the last 20 years. As an example, $70 million was spent for each significant discovery in the early 1960s as compared with $225 million in the late 1970s (expressed in 1982 constant dollars). However, with the general declining trend of discoveries, one can perceive a more pronounced drop in 1973 and then a sudden increase in 1974, 1975, and 1976. This increase is probably related to the inflation of the 1970s that in turn created an environment for the explosion of commodity prices, as shown by the commodity price index on Fig. 1. Thereafter, the decline in discoveries resumed in 1975 until the present. Exploration performance by regions North American discoveries are shown in Fig. 2. The graph shows three pronounced high discovery peaks in 1962, 1975, and 1980-81.

Jan 2, 1986

Currently raw brown coal is fired in the Latrotx; 'ahcc th,iki~, Lanying with it two major penalties, (a) boiler efficiency of 65 - 70 per cent (in terms of GCV), (b) much higher boiler cost than for black coal. Drying the coal, in energy-efficient, and cost-efficient manner, opens the way to efficiencies of order 88 per cent and enables the lower cost black coal type boilers to be used. With the higher boiler efficiency goes much higher combustion temperatures and the effect of this on radiative heat transfer is a major factor in reducing boiler cost. In a fluidised-bed combustor the temperature is controlled to 800C - 900C. In a pulverised fuel combustor higher temperatures are however achieved and can increase boiler fouling due to the salt content of the coal. This is a problem which needs to be solved. Victoria has the prospect of lifting efficiency from 28/29 per cent to 35 per cent, of reducing carbon dioxide output correspondingly and reducing cost of power stations. So far as gasification is concerned, efficient removal of liquid water from the coal is important to the overall efficiency.

Jan 1, 1992

By Bernard Jones

LTUG ? A meeting of many mining companies that are using large tires ? Introduction of the mines and size ? Companies go over their usage of tires and performance ? As a group we discuss how the manufactures are doing with supplies and performance (who's running what sizes and manufactures they are using) ? The mine's best practices they use (which ones work for them and which ones don't) ? Where the mines see themselves going in the future ? What type of tire management the mines have in place

May 1, 2009

By John R. Goode

"The year 2011 witnessed a major surge in rare earth prices as China, supplier of +95% of the world’s rare earths, reduced export quotas and increased export taxes and duties. In response, companies around the world are scrambling for alternative sources. In Canada too, there is a race to be the “first” rare earth producer. Something that is not generally realized is that Canada has a long history of rare earth production and was a major supplier from the early 1960’s to 1990. At one stage, Canada was said to be supplying more than one third of the world’s yttrium and probably supplied even more than that. Five decades ago, thorium was a key element in many non-nuclear applications and Canada became a major supplier of thorium from the late 1950’s to 1968, first as a by-product of uranium and then as a co-product of rare earths. This paper reviews the development of Canada’s original rare earth and thorium production facilities, which were located in the Elliot Lake uranium camp in Northern Ontario. The uses of these elements, geology, mineralogy, markets of the time, and processing are all discussed. Some of the lessons learned from these pioneering operations might be useful in today’s race to develop the next generation of rare earth production plants.INTRODUCTION The rare earths and thorium were first identified in the early 19th century but were little more than curiosities for the next century. However, in the mid-1960’s the invention of rare earth-based phosphors for the cathode ray tube in colour television sets launched a major demand for certain rare earths. The use of thorium as an alloying agent in aircraft and missiles grew rapidly in the late 1950’s. In the same period, demand for uranium for both weapons and power production soared. Also in the late 1950’s, the Elliot Lake uranium-thorium-rare earth deposits (also known as the Blind River deposits) were discovered. This conjugation of events led to uranium production in the Elliot Lake camp, quickly followed by the co-production of thorium and, later, the rare earths. Uranium production in the Elliot Lake camp continued from 1955 to 1996. Thorium was produced continuously from 1959 to 1969. Rare earths were produced, intermittently, from 1965 to 1990. Complete production records are not readily available for thorium and the rare earths but unquestionably Elliot Lake production made a significant contribution to world production. This paper is intended to present as much of the information that is available."

Jan 1, 2012

By F. Freme

Coal production in the United States in 2008 reached a record level of 1.06 Gt (1,171.5 million st), according to preliminary data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (Table 1). This is an increase of 2.2 percent, or 22.5 Mt (24.8 million st) above the 2007 level and 7.9 Mt (8.7 million st) above the prior record level set in 2006. Although coal production was higher in 2008, U.S. total coal consumption decreased in all sectors for the year. Coal consumption in the electric power sector in 2008 was lower by 0.3 percent, while coking coal consumption decreased by 2.8 percent and the other industrial sector declined by 3.7 percent. The commercial and institutional sector, that had been called the ?residential and commercial? sector prior to 2008, declined by 0.6 percent in 2008. It is the smallest of all the coal-consuming sectors. (Note: All percent-age change calculations are done at the short-tons level.) U.S. coal exports were significantly higher in 2008, while coal imports decreased during the year. Total coal stocks increased in 2008, as some consumers added to their stockpiles. The coal synfuel industry, which grew throughout most of this decade, disappeared from the scene due to the expiration of the available federal tax credits at the end of 2007. The decline in coal consumption during the year was the consequence of slowing domestic economic growth, particularly in the latter half of the year, combined with the weather conditions in 2008, resulting in lower demand for electricity. Preliminary data show that total generation in the electric power sector (electric utilities and independent power producers, including useful thermal output) in the U.S. decreased in 2008. Coal-based generation also decreased, resulting in a 3.2-Mt (3.5-mil-lion st) drop in coal consumed in the electric power sec-tor. Coal use in the non-electricity sector decreased by 3.3 percent to a level of 72.6 Mt (80.1 million st). The international coal markets in 2008 were the driv-

Jan 1, 2009

By Enver Alan

This Research & Development (R&D) study was conducted in the field of applied blasting engineering in Ethiopia, within the AKH Railway Project, which was built in Girena, within the boundaries of the province of Mersa, in the Basalt Quarry at km 346, Ashangi Formation, occured in Eocene geological time in the aphanitic trachibasalt. Under the scope of the study, which has been performed to determine the effects of the artificial discontinuities at different depths and the effects of artificial discontinuities through structural damage risk, three test areas, at the same location and same formation, were considered. Six numbers of artificial discontinuities, each 10 m (32, 81 ft) transverse, were created by using pre-splitting and drilling-blasting technology. The number of sequential artificial discontinuities on each test area is two and they have the same length. The length of artificial discontinuities are; 6,80 m (22,31 ft) at the first test area, 13,60 m (44,62 ft) at the second test area and 17,00 m (55,77 ft) at the third test area respectively. The distance between sequential artificial discontinuities is 8 m (26,25ft) on each test area. Thirty-one shots were executed in order to produce vibration (10 shots on the first test area, 11 shots on the second area, 10 shots on the third test area). One hundred and twenty-three seismic recordings were obtained during the execution of the shots by using 4 seismographs. The closest distance between the shot points and the nearest measuring station is 5,30 m (17,39 ft). During the shots, the rock was cracked and there was no fragmentation and/or fly rock. At the first test area, measured PPV values are between 25,40-127,00 mm/s (1-5 inch/s) before the first artificial discontinuity and less than 50,80 mm/s (2 inch/s) after the second artificial discontinuity. At the second test area, measured PPV values are between 76,20-177,80 mm/s (3-7 inch/s) before the first artificial discontinuity and less than 76,20 mm/s (3 inch/s) after the second artificial discontinuity. At the third test area, measured PPV values are between 50,80-279,40 mm/s (2-11 inch/s) before the first artificial discontinuity and less than 50,80 mm/s (2 inch/s) after the second artificial discontinuity. Peak reduction rates in Peak Particle Velocity (PPV) values determined by measuring as follows: In the first test area 95,77% (106,00 mm/s to 4,48 mm/s) (4,17 in/s to 0,18 in/s), in the second test area 79,77% (176,00 mm/s to 35,60 mm/s) (6,93 in/s to 1,40 in/s), in the third test area 95,85% (from 205,00 mm/s to 8,55 mm/s) (from 8,07 in/s to 0,34 in/s). The arithmetic mean of the differences of PPV values (decrease rate) is 82,66% in the first test area, 69,37% in the second test area, and 92,03% in the third test area. The highest sound value is 138,50 dB and is defined as “noise”. When the measured parameter values are examined it was determined on the USBM norm graphs that these vibrations carry a risk of structural damage in the region before the first artificial discontinuity. While passing through artificial discontinuities the vibrations progress by losing energy and the vibrations passing through two artificial discontinuities do not carry structural damage risk under current conditions.

By M. P. Board, J. K. Whyatt, T. J. Williams

The U.S. Bureau of Mines has been conducting a series of rock mechanics investigations at the Lucky Friday Mime in the Coeur d'Alene Mining District of northern Idaho. In the present study, the energy release rate (ERR) index was used to evaluate three underhand stope backfill parameters--cement content, density, and placement gap-to determine their influence on rock bursts. This index provides a relative measure of the likelihood of rock bursting for a given rock mass. It is known that the elastic idealization of the rock mass inherent in this method causes underestimation of stope closure and hence underestimation of the influence of backfill on rock bursting. However, this evaluation still showed that (1) changing from present practice to one in which backfill was omitted altogether would increase the ERR by 42 pct and (2) perfect placement of backfill would reduce the ERR below present practice levels by 28 pct. The easiest step toward perfect placement would be elimination of the placement gap, which accounted for half of the difference in ERR between present practice and ideal placement conditions. There was no indication that increasing initial fill strength through increased cement content would affect the ERR.

Jan 1, 1992

By J. D. Morgan

Introduction In 1986, the US economy passed the $4 trillion mark. However, the value of domestically processed materials of mineral origin fell slightly to $240 billion. The value of metals produced from US ores was unchanged at $5.6 billion, as was recycled scrap at $4 billion, while the value of industrial minerals rose slightly to $17.9 billion. Consumer demand strongly affects mining and the US economy is relatively saturated with longlived products. Moreover, in recent years there has been a steady increase in consumer, mortgage, and federal debt, inhibiting new purchases of goods. Motor vehicles and housing are major traditional markets for mineral materials. However, the 242 million US citizens already possess 170 million licensed motor vehicles and 92 million dwelling units. In 1986, domestic motor vehicle production fell 3%, to 11.3 million units, while new housing starts rose slightly to 1.8 million units. Nearly all mineral commodities move relatively freely in world trade. As detailed in Figs. 1 and 2, in the last three decades world production of major mineral materials has greatly increased. At present, substantial excess productive capacity exists not only in the US but also in many other countries. Consequently, the US mineral industry is encountering increasing competition from other sources, along with increasing competition from newer, engineered materials. For example, US production of plas¬tics has risen from 900 kt (1 million st) in 1950 to 22.7 Mt (25 million st) in 1986 - on a volume basis significantly greater than steel. Plastics, too, are mineral-based materials, some 7% of petrochemicals going to their manufacture. 1986 saw increased calls for protection. But President Reagan, in his 1987 State of the Union Message and Economic Report to the Congress, reaffirmed adherence to a policy of free and fair trade. However, he stressed the need for increased efforts to open foreign markets to US exports and to increase competitiveness of US industry US imports of mineral-based minerals in 1986 were valued at $40 billion and exports at $24 billion. Strategic minerals As detailed in Fig. 3, imports supplied a significant proportion of total US consumption of several important materials, including many classified as "strategic and critical." There were no changes in stockpile policy during the year. Congress debated the President's 1985 proposals to reduce stocks of World War II-type materials and to focus more on high technology materials needed for the cutting edge of future military material. But no final action resulted. However, Congressional concern about apartheid in South Africa did result in increasing pressure to limit imports of South African minerals. Meanwhile, the National Critical Materials Council in the Executive Office of the President intensified its efforts to be better able to advise the President. The Defense Production Act provides authority for priorities and allocations, supply expansions, voluntary agreements, and

Jan 5, 1987

The objective of current efforts by AQUILA Mining Systems Ltd. is the continued development of computer-based systems and techniques to automatically process and interpret monitored performance data from surface blasthole drills and mining shovels, and the management and coordination of these pieces of equipment by GPS (Global Positioning Systems).

Jan 1, 1995

By Wolfgang G. Brunner

The center of Berlin is currently a huge jobsite, where international architects, designers, consultants, construction and ground engineers as well as investors take on the challenge of the biggest and probably most complicated projects in terms of soil conditions in Europe. The Berlin sand is generally suitable for foundation measures, but can be very tricky in deep excavation pits below the high ground water level. The reason for this is its uniform grading, medium dense stratification and lack of cohesion. The requirements for these deep pits are: - measurements in the range of up to 120 000 m2 per pit - depths up to 19 m below ground water level - lack of dense horizontal geological layers - no permission for lowering ground water levels - toughest ever European competition in construction. Sheet pile walls, sheet piles set into cut - off walls, secant pile walls, diaphragm walls, all with tie backs under high water pressure, are used as retaining sytems. The pits are closed at the bottom against water either by under water concrete, deep lying grouted cut - offs or high lying jet - grouted cut - off slabs. The huge dimensions of these excavation pits are a new challenge for ground engineers, and new technology had to solve the upcoming problems and resulted in new experience.

Jan 1, 1999

By Mazin Adnan

The 80m high dam at the Peribonka river in the Canadian province of Quebec was designed for the generation of 385 MW of hydro electrical power (Fig.1). The complex ground conditions required the employment of a variety of geotechnical construction methods stretched to limits never experienced before. Innovative grouting and trenching techniques were used for the construction of a plastic concrete cut-off wall down to a depth of about 116m, to cut hydraulic seepage through alluvial deposits forming the dam foundation. The bedrock where the cut-off wall is embedded forms a glacial gully with steeply sloped flanks, which created further challenging conditions. [ ]

Jan 1, 2008

By S. Sun

Recent studies on the physico-chemical properties of molten slags and oxide solid solutions of interest is reviewed. The review covers redox and phase equilibria in slags, viscosity, diffusivity, electrical conductivity, kinetics of interfacial reactions between slags and CO-CO2, interfacial properties and phenomena. Some highlights from ongoing work on modelling phase diagrams, component activity, viscosity and electrical conductivity of multi-component slags will be presented and results compared with published experimental data on slags with or without suspended solid phases.

Jan 1, 2004

By J. L. Green

Virginia-Carolina Chemical Corp., in its Florida Operations, uses both roller mills and ball mills in dry grinding of phosphate rock. The roller mills have been in operation since 1954 in the Mining Department. The ball mills were installed and put in operation in 1960 in the Harding Concentrate Superphosphate Plant. The roller mills in the Mining Department are used to grind phosphate rock for outside customers. This involves short notice orders of varying grinds, grades and types of rock. The ball mills grind phosphate rock for use in V-C's own phosphoric acid and concentrated superphosphate plant. These mills grind generally two types of rock for one grind. In 1959, a 10% speed-up was made in the operating speed of the roller mills. This paper deals with the operational gains and resulting cost savings which evolved from this speed-up, and compares the present operations of the roller mills and of the ball mills in grinding phosphate rock. In January 1959 it was decided to determine the feasibility of reducing the grinding cost on the roller mills, per ton of rock ground, by speeding up the mill 10%. At this time, one mill was completely reconditioned so it would be in top condition. Extensive tests were then run both before and after the mill speed-up to determine the resultant cost savings. These tests showed that, due to this 10% speed-up, the mill capacity was increased approximately 20% and grinding power costs per ton were reduced approximately 10%. Table I shows the results of these tests. Each test run actually represents several of the same type rock and grind, averaged together. Each test run lasted approximately three hours. The validity of these runs has been confirmed by subsequent operation in grinding over 1,000,000 tons of phosphate rock. Accurate records have been kept on power consumption and repairs as well as tons produced. Two types of feed rock were used for the tests — pebble phosphate rock and flotation phosphate concentrate rock. The pebble phosphate rock size is approximately 80-90% plus 20 mesh. The flotation concentrate phosphate rock size is approximately 15% plus 20 mesh and 95% plus 100 mesh. The same two types of rock feed were used for all the test runs. Test Nos. 1, 2, and 3 were run at the original mill speed of 85.5 rpm on the vertical shaft. Test No. 1 was run with a feed of high grade flotation concentrates; the desired fineness attempted was 70% passing 200 mesh. Tests No. 2 and No. 3 were run with a feed of low grade pebble. Test No. 2 was run for a desired fineness of 70% passing 200 mesh. Test No. 3 was run for desired fineness of 50% passing 200 mesh.

Jan 1, 1963

By Mike Fabius

The Lakehead Region Conservation Authority is responsible for slopes along the Kaministiquia River, one of the largest tributaries to Lake Superior in Canada. After arresting toe erosion for a mile of riverbank, the remainder of the slope required stabilization to stop further crest regression and to protect the houses, street and services at the top. Stabilization of the 100 ft. high slope was tendered as design-build with a target safety factor of 1.3 and a design life of 75 years. The successful bid was a system of 1.4 inch diameter soil nails up to 40 feet long, installed perpendicular to the slope on a 3 to 5 foot grid. The conventional shotcrete facing was replaced with a ?green? biotechnical facing and special transverse plate heads on the nails. The key to keeping costs low proved to be installation with light equipment working on the slope, and driving the nails without drilling or grouting. Rather than tension, the design was based on bending in the nails, similar to a laterally loaded flexible pile. The paper describes the design and installation of this innovative system. The design is discussed in terms of soil properties, nail resistance as it varies with depth, failure modes, corrosion protection, root design and nail head design. Construction challenges are discussed. The system is compared to an adjacent anchored soldier pile wall built along the same slope 20 years ago. Post construction monitoring results confirm predicted performance.

Jan 1, 2006

By Jean Cayouette, Paul Blatter, Paul Cousin

"The Laronde mill was commissioned in 1988 and has been treating the Laronde Penna ore since 2000. The Laronde plant, situated in the Abitibi region of Quebec, has experienced mill expansions to accommodate 7500 mtpd and to recover gold and silver as well as important amounts of base metals (Cu, Zn, Pb). Ten sequential metallurgical and environmental processes are responsible for metals recovery and process viability. Over 200,000 ounces of gold, 4,5 million ounces of silver, 7000 tonnes of copper, and 78,000 tonnes of zinc are produced annually.In 2008, the Goldex plant began trucking high grade (35-45 g/t Au) pyrite sulphide concentrate (TCGO) for gold extraction at a newly constructed treatment plant, increasing gold output at Laronde by 40,000 ounces. In 2009, the high gold grade Lapa ore processing facilities were annexed to the Laronde plant increasing output by 120,000 ounces of gold. TCGO and Lapa productions are forecasted until 2018 and 2015 respectively, with known reserves of each mine.Today, up to 140 permanent employees run and optimise the Laronde plant operation. As a result, Laronde has intricacies intrinsic to a large and varied operation. The paper will outline the metallurgical highlights, challenges, and future outlook related to the treatment of each ore type (Laronde, TCGO, and Lapa).INTRODUCTIONFollowing the 2000 to 2003 expansions, the Laronde plant evolved into a mature milling complex with developed processing, man power, and water treatment capabilities able to accommodate the complex Laronde ore. The ore requires a series of grinding, copper/lead flotation and separation, zinc flotation, zinc tails precious metals leaching, followed by a counter-current decantation circuit and Merrill Crowe precipitation. A paste backfill and SO2-air cyanide destruction operate intermittently. The tailings area has a dedicated cyanide destruction and metals precipitation plant prior to water recycling to the mill. A biological water treatment plant was put into service in 2004 to address the build-up of thiocyanate in the tailings ponds at Laronde. This was the result of the high sulphide content of the Laronde ore and 90% recirculation of the process water. The plant uses bacteria to oxidize and destroy thiocyanate, and removes phosphate from the water before it is released to the environment."

Jan 1, 2011

By Suk han Jang

This paper describes the tower foundation design and construction experience for the 345kV Youngheung marine transmission line, which has been in commercial operation in Korea since July, 2004. This transmission line was designed and constructed to meet the rapidly increasing power demands of metropolitan areas and supply stable, bulk electric power from the Yonghung thermal power plant into metropolitan areas. This transmission line passes over the west sea, Lake Sihwa and over land. In order to successfully complete this project, and to safely support the tower during severe maritime conditions, several types of tower foundation such as Pad and Chimney foundation, Pier (Cylindrical) foundation, R.C.D foundation, Jacket pile foundation and Steel pipe pile + concrete mat foundation were developed and used. As the world?s first and longest marine transmission line, the 345kV Yonghung marine transmission line operates successfully, thanks to several high-tech civil engineering technologies and KEPCO?s accumulated experience.

Jan 1, 2007

By Amanda Elioff

Success of the Gold Line Eastside Ex-tension rail tunnels in Los Angeles, CA has prompted the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority?s (Metro) planning new rail lines to include underground alternatives. The Westside Extension Transit Corridor alternatives include up to 27 km (17 miles) of subway to be constructed in soft ground. The routes will require construction in Los Angeles? ?potential methane zone,? which was not considered for subway construction until recently. Slurry face tunnel boring machines (TBM) will likely be specified.

Jan 1, 2009

When the HSE Act was introduced in New Zealand in April 1993, one of the prime aims of the Government was to signal to the industry. The Government's recognition of the employer as the key person responsible for safety and health in the workplace and to actively encourage employers to self manage the health and safety function. Because of the significant change in the philosophy behind the new legislation, and because of the inherently conservative nature of the mining industry, it has taken some years for both the industry and the regulators to reach the stage of considering the framework in which a controlled degree of self management can proceed.   In this paper, some of the issues relating to the legitimacy of the process are considered, some of the questions raised in the minds of those charged with implementing the legislation are discussed, and the views of some eminent authors are examined.   The latter part of the paper focuses on a programme called the Reduced Site Surveillance Programme, which grew out of Goal 2 of the New Zealand Mining Inspection Group's 5-Year Strategic Plan. The programme is described in some detail, and the criteria applied at each stage of the programme is discussed. The paper concludes with the author's expectations of the longer term outcomes of the programme.

Jan 1, 1997

The design of excavations in high displacement mining environments requires consideration of both the load and displacement capacity of the ground reinforcement and support systems. This paper is a case study on the design of point anchored rebar bolts using laboratory tests and field trials at the Ridgeway Deeps block cave. A laboratory testing program was carried out to measure the mechanical properties of the Strata Control Systems R27 Secura resin bolt which is currently being installed on the extraction and undercut level at the Ridgeway Deeps block cave. The aim was to quantify elastic, plastic and energy parameters for various bolt, mesh and plate systems. Experiments were performed on bar segments, bolt/plate systems, and bolt/plate/mesh/resin systems. The mechanical properties were calculated from tensile tests with a 500 kN Avery machine. Load-displacement data was collected from four different testing configurations. The laboratory results are compared with underground measurements and observations of bolt performance.

Nov 25, 2010

By A. Kale

A chlorination pilot plant having capacity to produce 5?10 kg/hr of titanium tetrachloride is in operation at the chlorination facility in Mintek. The bubbling fluid bed chlorination plant can be operated in batch and/or continuous process to study the chlorination kinetics of various feedstocks. The chlorination of titaniferrous ores to produce titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) was carried out during the commissioning of the pilot plant and also as part of the titanium programme carried out at Mintek. TiCl4 is a basic raw material for producing commercial titanium dioxide pigment and titanium metal. This paper discusses the challenges faced during the commissioning and operation of the chlorination pilot plant. It also discusses the effect on the auxiliary facilities and instrumentation as a result of the harsh operating conditions of +1000°C and use of corrosive gases like chlorine and titanium tetrachloride. It discusses the effect of physico-chemical properties of the titanium tetrachloride and iron chlorides. The effect on the chlorinator refractory lining due to heating and cooling of the chlorinator is also discussed. Besides the special provisions made during the design of the chlorinator, this paper also discusses the operational experience and possible solutions to be implemented in future. Keywords Fluid bed chlorination, titanium ore chlorination, titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) production using fluid bed technology.

Jan 1, 2011