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The introduction of nitro-carbo-nitrate (NCN) blasting agents has been one of the most significant innovations in the explosive industry in the last twenty years. The most commonly used blasting agent is a rather narrowly proportioned mixture by weight of 94% ammonium nitrate (AN) and 6% No. 2 diesel fuel oil (FO) that is generally designated as ANFO. Other formulations have been developed but none of these have been as extensively used as ANFO. The relative safety of the nitro-carbo-nitrate (NCN) blasting agents almost immediately suggested bulk loading techniques to obtain economies in materials handling. The first attempt at bulk handling was to pneumatically load boreholes with ANFO. When the initial experiments were made in 1957, it was apparent that there were three problem areas which needed study to minimize potential hazards. These were: 1. Static Electricity 2. Fumes 3. Safe Handling Procedures Since those early days, considerable work has been performed in evaluating these problem areas and in arriving at procedures and recommendations that would provide the required safety. Despite the relative insensitivity of ANFO type products, all normal practices for the safe handling of explosives should be obselved. Smoking should not be tolerated in the vicinity of blasting agents and misfires should be handled in the same manner as a misfire with a dynamite charge. The purpose of this Technical Report is to discuss the problems of static electricity and fumes and the solutions that have been developed. Safe handling procedures have been discussed by the Bureau of Mines and are specified by various state and local regulations. Since regulations vary from state to state, the local, applicable regulations must be followed within the area of their jurisdiction. General information is contained in a U. S. Bureau of Mines report, IC 8179, "Safety Recommendations for Sensitized Ammonium Nitrate Blasting Agents" (1963).

Jan 1, 1973

By K. Kim, H. Gao

A site-characterization strategy formulated for the probabilistic assessment of rock mass properties is presented. The strategy, which takes into account the variability of rock properties and the stochastic nature of the rock-failure process, entails determining probability distributions of rock properties by utilizing extreme value statistics and Monte Carlo simulation. Laboratory and, field test data are analyzed and presented to illustrate the methodology. The results indicate that the distributive characteristics of rock mass can be estimated by using this proposed method. The results of the analysis can be incorporated into the design of underground structures. Then, the relative uncertainties of the failure probability of the structures can be assessed.

Jan 1, 1997

By William J. Orlandi

The intent and scope of this paper is to present to you, as concisely as possible, the problems and requirements -- and what we consider advantages -- of all-belt haulage in a modern underground coal mine. Mine No, 10, at Pawnee, Illinois, was opened in 1951; consequently, all the planning and consideration given to haulage selection was based on information then available and on Peabody Coal Company? s experience to that date,

Jan 1, 1961

By David A. Gulley

One of the advantages of the market¬place, economists believe, is that it automatically generates information which would otherwise be hard to come by. For example, supply and demand signals imply something about private and social sacrifices and benefits. This information is seldom perfect, and can neglect some costs and benefits, but it nevertheless is crucial data. Moreover, marketplaces can also eliminate the need for some information. For example; since market participants are voluntary actors, only those transactions are culminated in which a mutual gain occurs. This eliminates the need for some cost-benefit calculations. A corollary to this standard economic doctrine is that whenever a government or other party supplants a marketplace, it must generate some of the information either lost or newly-needed. (Schultze, 1977) In 1981, following a ten-year moratorium the United States government resumed leasing of publicly-owned coal. When the government designed this program, the goal was to guide the marketplace, rather than merely to respond, as a landlord, to the market's wishes. This goal has been modified somewhat, due both to the changing political climate and to the practical difficulties of implementing so ambitious an undertaking. Nevertheless, during this period of program design and implementation, part of the challenge of creating and using the necessary information fell to the professional modelling fraternity.

Jan 1, 1982

By Don Morris

The Building Products Company is Phoenix based and owned by Mission Clay products of California. Building Products is the only manufacturer of vitrified clay pipe in Arizona. The marketing area includes Arizona, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, and California. Building Products, promoted by Arizona Public Service, was formed in 1970. Raw-materials prospecting was undertaken for 2 years, after which a $5-million plant was built. Initially, a satisfactory vitrified product could not be made with the raw materials then in hand. Subsequent prospecting and testing led to an acceptable raw-materials mix. Testing to upgrade the final product is a continuing process. The basic raw-materials supply must be adequate, secure, and capable of sustaining close tolerances in the final product. These needs are met by mining four geologic materials at three different localities: (1) refractory aluminous shales (two horizons-one pit) Colorado Plateau Province (Mogollon Rim); (2) less refractory aluminous materials from late Cenozoic lacustrine materials near Dewey in the Transition Zone (TZ); and (3) Precam¬brian "slate" from near New River along the southern edge of the TZ. Other additives include grog (ground-up, broken pipe) and barium carbonate that ties up what gypsum there is. Calcium magnesium carbonates are deleterious components that are minimized by careful selection of the mined products. The raw materials are blended and mixed, ground to 12 mesh, mixed in a pug mill, depleted of air, extruded into pipe ranging from 6 inches to 42 inches in diameter, transported to a hot-air drying room, fork-lifted to an appropriate kiln, and fired at a 1900-2000° F range. The "Rim" kaolinitic shales, being the most refractory ingredient, stabilize the pipe during the firing process. They are very plastic, and therefore facilitate extrusion. The Dewey clay fuses at a low temperature and forms an impervious glasslike binder. It also is plastic. The "slate" forms platy particles that tend to orient themselves during laminar flow. This provides strength for both the green and dried product. It doesn't absorb water, which helps the drying process. Grog remains stable during firing, and therefore helps to control shrinkage. The development of appropriate raw materials and proper mixtures has been done empirically.

Jan 1, 1987

By J. A. Muñoz, A. Ballester, C. Gómez, M. E. Sevillano, M. Figueroa

The electrochemical behavior of massive chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) electrodes has been studied in the absence and-in the presence of mesophilic microorganisms, using cyclic voltametry as analytical technique. The culture was principally formed for Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans. The results showed that the reactivity of the chalcopyrite gradually increased with the bacterial treatment. The anodic dissolution process of the chalcopyrite treated with microorganisms was related to the breaking of passive layers when the applied potential increased. The analysis of the surface products showed that the chalcopyrite was covered with a superficial film avoided its dissolution during the bioleaching test. So, the rest potential of the bioleached samples increased possibly as consequence of its superficial transformation.

Jan 1, 1995

By J. V. Byrnark, R. W. von Bitter

The Hibbing Taconite Co. concentrator flowsheet, which is noted for its simplicity, uses single- stage autogenous grinding coupled with two stages of magnetic separation and two stages of size classification to produce a magnetite concentrate. This paper discusses the pilot-plant development of single-stage grinding, the commercial mill grinding performance, and mill liner development. Process innovation discussion includes process control computer implementation, size classification improvements, mill speed changes, magnetic separator improvements, and quality control innovations.

Jan 1, 1987

By Robert H. Merrill

INTRODUCTION In most cases, the design of an underground mine is based upon the premise that the ground either will cave or will be stable. This chapter concerns the design of a mine in ground that will cave readily or with some as¬sistance, such as by long-hole drilling and blasting. Some of the more widely used caving systems of mining are panel caving, block caving, sublevel caving, and large pillar recovery. Some of the less widely used systems are glory-hole, top slicing, and induction caving. Al¬though the common practice of pillar robbing is not usually considered to be a caving system, this subject will be treated as a part of this chapter. BASICS OF CAVING Caving systems are most successful in ground that will cave in sizes that will flow through openings and grizzlies, and will easily load in cars or on belts for haul¬age. The ground most likely to cave well is highly frac¬tured and contains breaks, flaws, or other discontinui¬ties that form planes of weakness. Also, caving action can be greatly enhanced if the host rock itself is low in compressive, shear, and tensile strength. Ideally, a cav¬ing system of mining is best employed when the criteria for caving is a feature of the ore body and the develop¬ment drifts, haulageways, and drawpoints can be mined in a highly competent rock beneath the mineralized zone. However, the development is often in the same, or similar, fractured rock and the openings require sub¬stantial artificial support to assure stability. Several clues can be assembled to identify potential caving ground; however, for borderline cases, no sure method has been devised to date. The diamond-drill cores taken for exploration can provide an excellent clue provided drilling is performed carefully by experienced drillers. For example, if the ground is cored in such a manner that the breaks in the core are caused more by failure of the rock than by whipping core barrels, plugged drill bits, or other drilling causes, and the intact core lengths are consistently long [say, 0.6 to 3 m (2 to 10 ft) of unbroken core], there is little reason to believe the ground will cave without considerable as¬sistance. This is especially true for rocks with compres¬sive strengths above 34.5 MPa (5000 psi) and tensile strengths above 2.1 MPa (300 psi). On the other hand, if core recovery is low (below 80%) and the recovered ore is broken in small pieces and the breaks are along obvious weaknesses in the rock, the chances are excel¬lent that the ground will cave. This is true even when the rock between the defects has high compressive and tensile strength. Another clue has already been mentioned, that is, the measurement of the physical properties of the rock and the natural planes of weakness or defects in the rock. The planes of weakness in the rock can often be detected from outcrops, cores, or other exposures of the rock under consideration. Some rock types are known to be strong and will sustain large, unsupported open¬ings and would be difficult to cave intentionally. Yet the same rock type can also contain unbonded or weak planes of weakness or fractures, and in these locations the rock would undoubtedly cave with little assistance. Therefore, although the inherent strength of the rock is a factor in caving, the natural defects in the rock are more often the deciding factor. DESIGN CONCEPTS For the most part, the design of openings for caving ground is a problem of the interaction of openings over a relatively large area of the mine. To illustrate, Fig. 1 is a simplified section of a series of openings along the grizzly level or draw level of a block caving or panel caving development, and above this opening is a simpli¬fied section of a room-and-pillar arrangement on the undercut level. At this stage of the development, the stresses around the openings on the grizzly level are only moderately influenced by the openings on the undercut level and vice versa. Therefore, the stresses around the openings are approximated by the stresses around single or multiple openings in rock, the values of which are de¬scribed in the literature (Obert, Duvall, and Merrill, 1960; Obert and Duvall, 1967). Once the pillars on the undercut level are blasted (Fig. 2), the situation changes abruptly. The undercut opening (prior to caving) now can be approximated as an ovaloidal opening above the grizzly drifts and this opening tends to shield the vertical stress field. As the caved stage is drawn the stope approximates a much larger rectangular or square opening filled with rock, and if the rock is not sustaining a major portion of the stress field, this opening can be considered (for en¬gineering purposes) to be empty and the stresses that interact between the larger and the smaller openings take on a totally new perspective (see Fig. 3). Next, let the material cave to the surface, and let the caving ma¬terial sustain some stress, but much less than if the ma¬terial were intact. This condition is similar to a soft inclusion in a rigid body and has been treated in the literature (for example, Donnell, 1941). At this point in time, the grizzly drifts are subjected to the stress con-

Jan 1, 1982

By D. Gove

All mining operations using trucks have a common need to properly match the number and size of hauling units (trucks. wagons. scrapers. etc.) to a loading unit (wheel loader. hydraulic shovel/excavator, cable shovel. push tractor. etc.) to provide the best possible fleet match. Optimizing fleet match minimizes the cost per unit of material moved by that fleet. As haul conditions change (haul length. grade. or rolling resistance), there may be need to adjust the number of trucks to maintain the optimum fleet match. Fleet Production and Cost is a tool which, among other things, can be used to optimize the truck-loader match.

Jan 1, 1994

By D. Malhotra

Climax byproduct-plant tailing assayed 0.019 percent WO3. Pilot-plant and laboratory tests were performed to investigate the possibility of recovering additional tungsten values from the byproduct-plant tailing. The paper discusses the methodology used in the study and the results of this investigation.

Jan 1, 1985

By C. P. Blair

In discussing so-called "volume rates" for the movement of coal, I start from one basic premise: That it is the job of the railroads to devise rates which will move the traffic, while at the same time assuring a fair return on their investment. No matter how reasonable and nondiscriminatory freight rates may be, if they fail to attract and hold traffic to the rails, they are utterly useless - both to the carriers and the shipping public. And it will be my purpose here to show that under certain circumstances the use of volume rates by the railroads enables them. to hold traffic which would otherwise be lost, and to avoid needless dissipation of revenues, Properly employed, volume rates should benefit both the coal industry and the railroads, I do not, however, advocate the discarding of the carload as the basic rate-making unit. Far from it. Sound operating reasons dictate the making of rates based on car- loads, and the tradition of carload rates has a firm foundation in railroad operating costs, many of which vary directly with cars handled. In short, the carload was, Is and, in my opinion, will continue to be the basis for most rail rates on coal, as well as on other commodities. But change is an inevitable result of progress, and we should not be so bound by tradition that we are unwilling to try novel methods of ate making, should the circumstances require, The modern rate maker must, now and then, run the risk of being called an iconoclast if he is to keep up with the times. As T will point out, volume rates were for many years rejected by both the Interstate Commerce Commission and the railroads, But now both the Commission and the carriers have come to recognize that under proper circumstances and conditions volume rates are a powerful and effective tool.

Jan 1, 1959

By B. J. Arnold

A coal's size distribution clay content and moisture content can affect its handling behavior. But the combined effects of these properties and the effects of other properties are not known. Research underway at CQ Inc.'s (formerly EPRI's) Coal Quality Development Center (CQDC) and at Iowa State University (ISU) will answer these questions as part of a four year project to develop a coal handleability index for utilities to use when specifying coals. This paper will present preliminary data from the first year of the project, which focused on obtaining data on the chemical and physical properties of carious coals and their measured handling properties. Additionally, size, ash and moisture analyses and shear test data for several coals used at one power plant will be presented along with correlations between these physical and chemical properties and the measured handling properties. These data lead to the conclusion that while moisture content is the most important variable, the amount of -44 µm (-325 mesh) coal fines is a significant factor in determining coal handling behavior.

Jan 1, 1992

By Malcolm J. McPherson, Satya Harpalani

A thorough knowledge of coal permeability and its variation with factors like stress conditions, and time, is useful in simulation studies of mine ventilation and coalbed methane recovery, as well as characterizing coalbed methane reservoirs. An experimental investigation was carried out to study the gas flow characteristics of coal to enhance the under- standing of the mechanism of methane flow through it. The work consisted of measurement of permeability of coal samples under triaxial stress and an examination of the physical structure of coal using electron microscopy. Effort was made to fit the experimental data to several phenomenological models that have been used to describe fluid flow through porous media. It was realized that gas flow through coal cannot be described by models that assume this flow to be through a bundle of capillary tubes. However, results suggest that this gas flow could be predominantly through fractures and cracks in coal, and this could be represented by flow between parallel plates.

Jan 1, 1986

By L. B. Rothfeld

This paper presents preliminary results of a Bureau of Mines study of potential costs of compliance with the federal Resource Conservation and Recovery Act for copper heap and dump leaching. Specifically, estimates are given for the cost of compliance with possible technology standards that would require the use of liners and closure caps regardless of terrain and underlying geology and hydrology. This cost is compared to the co lit of compliance with present state requirements for terrain a typical of those found at existing copper leach sites in the Southwestern U.S.A. Incremental compliance costs are found to widely exceed screening criteria used by the Environmental Protection Agency to denote significant economic impact.

Jan 1, 1993

By B. C. Paul, R. Q. Honaker, M. Huang

Froth flotation is now, the most commonly used method for cleaning fine-coal fractions in coal-preparation plants. Past research and industrial practice have demonstrated that froth flotation achieves excellent separation efficiencies for fine coals having only a small fraction of middling particles. However, the efficiency of froth flotation decreases sharply as the concentration of middling particles increases. This is due to the flotation of high-ash particles that have a small amount of hydrophobic coal present at the surface. Because gravity-based processes are much more efficient for the treatment of middlings, the application of centrifugal washing for fine-coal cleaning was studied with an emphasis on the primary cleaning of fine-circuit feed. Results are shown of a parametric study that used a semibatch Falcon centrifugal concentrator. The results of the study revealed that separation performance is a function of particle size, bowl geometry, feed solids content and feed rate.

Jan 1, 1996

By Serge Payant, Michael G. Li, Lionel J. J. Catalan

Alkaline solution rinsing for decommissioning of an acid-leached residue was evaluated by column experiments, neutralization tests and solid characterization by XRD and SEM. It was found that consumption of a strong alkali during residue neutralization was much greater than that required to neutralize the soluble acidity. The excess alkalinity was consumed by solid-phase conversions unnecessary for the success of decommissioning. Alkaline rinsing did not reduce the time requirement for decommissioning when compared with plain water rinsing. Since no benefit is gained to compensate for the additional costs associated with excess alkali consumption, we conclude that strong alkaline solution rinsing is in fact inferior to simple water rinsing.

Jan 1, 1998

By J. Duran

Mining at Phoenix is currently done by surface operation in the Fortitude and Bonanza Pits, at a combined rate of approximately 110,000 tons per day. A portion of the ore bodies targeted by these pits was mined previously by underground mining methods, dating back to the mid to late 1800?s. Most of the underground workings (voids) are located in the west central area of the Bonanza Pit. The surface operation requires excavation through voids, and there is a risk of pit floor subsidence that has to be addressed. This paper presents a review of the risk mitigation measures that were implemented to reduce risks to people and equipment working in the area.

Feb 23, 2014

By B. R. Satio, P. G. West-Sells, D. B. Dreisinger, B. J. Y. Leong, G. A. Kordosky

Electrolytic techniques have historically been used to remove arsenic, antimony and bismuth from copper refining electrolytes. However, both solvent extraction and ion exchange techniques have been heavily researched and in a number of cases commercially introduced. In this study a large number of solvent extraction reagents and ion exchange resins were screened to determine the selectivity of the reagents for impurity removal. Solvating extractants were found to efficiently remove arsenic from electrolyte. The extent of arsenic extraction increased in the following order: TBP < DBBP < DPPP < Cyanex 925 < Cyanex 923. Antimony and bismuth extraction from electrolyte were demonstrated with the reagent 2EHAP04. The ion exchange resins UR-3300 and Duolite C-467 were found to strongly extract antimony and bismuth from electrolyte. C-467 appeared to be superior to UR-3300.

Jan 1, 1993

By John O. Marsden

Process selection is the systematic development of the optun.m metal extraction route for a particular feed matenal and has two main objectives: (1) to optimize project economics, principally a function of gold recovery, throughput rate and processing costs, and to develop a process that satisfies all of the proct requirements including, for example, political and environmental considerations.

Jan 1, 1992

By Patrick Hannon

In this presentation, it is intended to briefly describe some occurrences of lead-zinc mineralization in Mississippian carbonates of central Nova Scotia. Results of geophysical and geochemical prospecting are presented. Because the deposits do not give positive identification to these indirect techniques, it is necessary to site exploratory drilling through the development of geological concepts.

Jan 1, 1975