Search Documents

By Stuart Marsland

"Reference materials have always been important for validating and controlling analytical methods', They have recently become even more important as quality requirements have become more stringent and customer demands for properly verified and controlled results increase. Clients, especially from the resource exploration industry demand critical validation of all results reported. Mintek has been producing geological and semi processed ore references since the early 1970's and recently due to increase in demand other manufactures have entered the South African Market.This paper describes Analytical challenges from the customer's perspective. The customer being the metallurgist, mine geologist, environmental scientist and geologists from resource companies. Reference Materials and their appropriate use and good understanding of them can aid greatly in building confidence in the results, choosing the right Laboratory for a project, deciding which set of results arc correct and providing evidence to the customer's clients that the results obtained are the very best possible.Throughout the world there are hundreds of reference materials produced by over 80 organisations and these are mainly ores, rocks, semi processed ores, metals, and many more. Mintek is one of the top 10 producers with over 75 products. Many of these producers including Mintek and their respective standards organisations belong to the ISO REMCO committee and their respective work groups. This committee's main task is to draw up guide lines for the use, manufacturing and certifying reference materials. In South Africa a mirror committee has recently had its inaugural meeting the function is to give clear mandate to the South African representative on the main ISO REMCO committee, the South African delegate bas an opportunity to influence the contents of the guides.Tile SARM program has since the year 2000 increased its sale three fold, the question is why? There is more accountability needed in our world. That means Analytical results have to be the very best possible and risks associated to them must be well quantified. Consider that the risk of wrong results of wrong decisions made from a result is trivial to laboratory, in comparison to the laboratories customers. The consequence to a laboratory could be a loss of income or some one may lose their job. To the customer he may dig up 1000 of ton's of rock with nothing in it or worse still don't mine it when the grade is high enough. This is seriol1s money."

Jan 1, 2014

By H. Cevizci

In this study, a newly developed plaster stemming method is studied and compared with the usual dry drill cuttings stemming method for surface blasting in mines and quarries. Drill cuttings are generally used in open pits and quarries as the most common stemming material since these are most readily available at blast sites. However, dry drill cuttings eject very easily from blastholes without offering much resistance to blast energy. The plaster stemming method has been found to be better than the drill cuttings stemming method due to increased confinement inside the hole and better utilization of blast explosive energy in the rock. The main advantage of the new stemming method is the reduction in the cost of blasting. In one series of blast tests, blasting costs per unit volume of rock were reduced to 16 per cent by increasing burden and spacing distances. Also, better fragmentation was obtained by using the plaster stemming method. Blast trials showed that plaster stemming produced finer material. In the same blast tests, +30 cm size fragments reduced to 5.4 per cent of the total, compared to 37.7 per cent in the conventional method of drill cuttings stemming. With this method of stemming, vibration and air shock values increased slightly due to more blast energy being available for rock breakage, but these increased values were small and under the permitted limit for blast damage criteria.

Jan 1, 2012

By W. Newcomen, D. Brox

The assessment of the stability performance of open pit highwalls has traditionally been based on consideration of surface movement rates. Although generally accepted in industry, this approach presents challenges for establishing appropriate threshold values to allow for safe mining operations and does not address the issue of total strain. Surface movement monitoring data from a limited number of open pit mining operations in North and South America has been evaluated in terms of highwall strain, rock mass quality and inferred mechanism of instability. Threshold strain levels for key stages of highwall stability proposed from previous work has been reviewed and are endorsed based on evaluation of additional data. An empirical highwall strain criteria for the assessment of highwall stability performance is postulated based on relatively consistent trends in highwall strain data. L’évaluation du niveau de stabilité des hauts murs de carrières a traditionnellement été basée sur les taux de mouvements de surfaces. Bien que cette approche soit généralement acceptée à travers l’industrie, elle présente des défis pour la définition de seuils appropriés concernant la sécurité des opérations minières et n’adresse pas la notion de déformations totales. Des données de mouvements de surface provenant d’un nombre limité d’opérations minières à ciel ouvert d’Amérique du Nord et du Sud ont été évaluées en terme de déformation des hauts murs, de qualité de la masse rocheuse et des mécanismes inférés d’instabilité. Des seuils de déformation pour différentes phases clefs de stabilité de hauts murs ont été revus et sont endossés, basé sur l'évaluation de donnés additionnelles. Un critère de déformation empirique pour l’évaluation de la stabilité des hauts murs est postulé, basé sur des tendances relativement consistantes de données de déformations de hauts murs. Die Beurteilung der Stabilität von hohen Felsböschungen basiert traditionellerweise von Oberflächenbewegungen. Obwohl dieses Verfahren im Allgemeinen akzeptiert wird, stellt es jedoch gewisse Probleme für die Festlegung von Grenzwerten für die Sicherheit dar. Die totalen Dehnungen werden bei dieser Betrachtungsweise vernachlässigt. Eine beschränkte Anzahl von Oberflächenbewegungs Daten von Bergbauwerke in Nord- und Südamerika sind in Bezug auf die Dehnungen von hohen Felsböschungen, Felsqualität und davon abgeleiteten Bruchmechanismen untersucht worden. Grenzwerte für die Belastung von hohen Felsböschungen während den massgebenden Bauetappen aus bisherigen Projekten sind begutachtet und durch zusätzliche Untersuchungen bestätigt worden. Gestützt auf relativ konsitenten Trends, ist hier ein empirisches Verfahren der Dehnungen in hohen Felsböschungen zur Beurteilung der Stabilität vorgestellt.

Jan 1, 2003

By SAIMM Journal

COLLOQUIUM ON COMMINUTION The Institute has arranged a colloquium on the above topic to be held on 13th March, 1973, at Kelvin House. The following papers will be presented: 'Peripheral Discharge Mill', by A. H. Mokken, Union Corporation Limited

Jan 1, 1974

By L. Godfrey, Z. Nontso, F. Magweregwede, B. Maphalala, S. Khan

The aim of this paper was to establish if mineral resource scarcity is a driver for South Africa to transition to a circular economy. The project objectives were achieved by investigating economically viable, and critical or strategic minerals remaining in South Africa, as well as resource scarcity, as a driver for South Africa to transition to a circular economy. The study found that some minerals in South Africa, such as iron ore, lead, manganese, gold, and cobalt have less than 50 years of economically viable mining remaining. At least 18 minerals can be classified indicatively as critical or strategic: aggregates, bauxite, chromite, cobalt, copper, gold, graphite, iron, limestone, lithium, manganese, nickel, phosphorous, platinum group metals, rare earth elements, silver, titanium, and vanadium. The classification was based on the minerals’ economic importance, supply risk, and potential use in the development and manufacturing of emerging technologies. The findings suggest that the scarcity of mineral resources is a critical driver for the country to transition to a circular economy. Other identified drivers include socio-economic factors, climate change commitments, and business objectives. All minerals are non-renewable resources and at risk of depletion, therefore sustainable extraction and use are critical. Priority should be directed at investigating circular economy opportunities and substitutes for commodities at risk of being depleted within the next 50 years. There is an opportunity for South Africa to transition from a minerals export-based model to one that promotes local mineral beneficiation and manufacturing of end products.

Mar 5, 2025

By R. Tabanrad

This article examines the stability analysis of intake tunnels of Karun III dam & power plant. The tunnels have been excavated with a 3-dimensional and fairly complicated geometry in Pabdeh weak formation rocks at Zagros region. Due to the particular excavation geometry and inapplicability of plane-strain status, the stability of these excavations has been analyzed using both the 3D elastic software Examine 3D and the 2D non-elastic software UDEC simultaneously. The geomechanical parameters have been estimated by back analyzing the measured displacements from instruments, which were installed in the tunnels, and the parameters have been used in non-elastic numerical model. The results of the analysis show that the strains occurred in surrounding rock mass are less than the allowable failure strain and that the tunnels are stable. In addition, considering the results of non-elastic 2D analysis, the areas with unstable potentiality were identified and after the instability occurred at the areas predicted by the model , it was stopped up to the allowable strain limit through installing additional support . Bei diesem Artikel handelt es sich um eine Analyse der Festigkeit der Eingangstunnel des Damms und Elektrizitätswerks “Karoon III”.Die Tunnel haben drei Dimensionen und eine sehr schwierige Form und sind in brüchigen Felsen in “Pabedeh ,in Zagrossgebirge”eingebohrt.Aufgrund besonderer Form der Bohrung wurde ihre Festigkeit durch elastische dreidimensionale Soft-ware analysiert,die gleichzeitig die drei-und zweidimensionale unelastische Soft-ware UDEC benutzt hat.Die geometrische Parameter sind mit Ausnützung der Analyse berechneter eingesetzter Versorgungen,die in Tunnel aufgebaut sind,bewertet.Und diese Parameter sind in Zahlen-Analyse benutzt.Die Ergebnisse dieser Analyse zeigen,dass die Drücke an Felsen weniger als problematischer Grad der Drücke sind und die Tunnel fest sind.Ausserdem wurde mit einem Einblick auf die Ergebnisse der unelastischen zweidimensionale Analyse die eventuellen unfesten Teile bestimmt.Nach entstandener Unfestigkeit an diesen Teilen wurde die problematischeDrücke für Aufbau mehrere Anlagen gestoppt. Cet article examine l'analyse de la stabilité de tunnels de la prise de Karoun barrage III et centrale électrique. Les tunnels ont été excavés avec une 3 dimensionnel et compliqué géométrie dans Pabedeh que la formation faible balance à région Zagros équitablement. Dû à la géométrie de l'excavation particulière et inapplicabilite de statut de tension plane, la stabilité de ces excavations a été analysée en utilisant les deux le 3D logiciel élastique Examen 3D et le 2D logiciel non - élastique UDEC simultanément. Les paramètres du geomechanical ont été estimés en analysant le déplacement mesuré d'instruments qui ont été installés dans les tunnels et les paramètres en arrière a été utilisé dans les modèles numériques non - élastique. Les résultats de l'analyse montrent que les tensions se sont produites dans masse du roc environnante est plus petit que la tension de l'échec admissible et que les tunnels sont stables. De plus, les régions avec potentialité instable ont été identifiées étant donné les résultats de 2D analyse non - élastique, et après que l'instabilité se soit produite aux régions prédites par le modèle, il a été arrêté jusqu'à la limite de la tension admissible à travers installer du support supplémentaire.

Jan 1, 2003

By M. Getz, G. Asbjörnsson, M. Evertsson, E. Clausen

The mining and minerals processing industry is gradually being digitalised to improve efficiency and reduce waste. One aspect of this transition is to ensure that relevant process-data in sufficient quality and quantity is given to the operator in the right format and at the right time to improve decision-making. Augmented reality (AR) can serve as a potential ICT-based support tool for human operators to achieve this goal. With AR, virtual information is combined with the real world in real-time. Therefore, AR technology has the potential to fulfil the need for improved data visualisation in Industry 4.0. This article is the result of a collaborative effort of Chalmers University of Technology and RWTH Aachen University to identify selected state-of-the-art applications of AR that are currently being applied in the mining and minerals industry or selected related industries. This paper aims to show opportunities for the application of AR in the mining and mineral processing industry with selected conceptual applications. This paper concludes with several requirements identified as necessary to implement the conceptual applications of AR in the mining and minerals industry. Keywords: Augmented reality, mining, mineral processing

Jan 1, 2020

By J. W. Wilson, J. G. Taylor

The mechanization of haulage drilling in the gold mines of Anglo American Corporation by J. w. WILSON, Ph. D., C.Eng., M.AIME, F.!.Min.E., F.I.M.M. (Fellow), and J. G. TAYLOR, A.C.S.M., C.Eng., M.!.M.M. (Visitor) Some one-thousand kilometres of tunnels are mined annually in the gold mines of South Africa. Until two years ago, mechanized drilling on South African gold mines was not an economic proposition because of the availability of inexpensive labour and the fact that mechanized equipment developed for other mining markets could not perform satisfactorily in the tough, abrasive quartzites of theWitwatersrand System. A project team from the Technical Development Services Organisation of the Anglo American Corporation, in collaboration with various manufac turers of drill rigs and drill steel, has been concerned with the development of suitable equipment for mechanized main-haulage drilling. After two-and-a-half years of extensive testing and development of drifters, drill steels, and bits, many of the problems encountered have been sotved, and gradually jumbos mounting pneumatically and hydraulically powered drifters are being phased into production on various gold mines of the Group. A description of the development work is given, and actual operating results are recorded, together with details of the drilling and blasting techniques used.

Jan 1, 1975

By C. -I. Lee

Since the early 1970s, Korea has constructed many large-scale tunnels and underground storage caverns in response to the rapid industrial development. The rock mechanics engineers have accumulated valuable experiences in the area of underground space technologies. But they still face technical challenges in environmental and safety aspects. To discuss those challenges in Korea, a brief engineering description of underground space projects including oil and gas storage, food storage, pumped storage power plant, transportation tunnels, waterway tunnels, and radioactive waste disposal is presented. Mechanical and hydrological stability analyses of the storage caverns in Korea are also introduced. Depuis le début des années soixante-dix, le développement industriel rapide en Corée a entraîné la construction de nombreuses galeries et cavernes de stockage souterraines. Les ingénieurs de mécanique minière ont donc accumulé des expériences précieuses dans le domaine de la technologie de l’espace souterrain. Cependant, ils font toujours face à de nombreux défis techniques en ce qui concerne les aspects de l’environnement et de la sécurité. Pour présenter ces défis en Corée, l’étude présente décrit les projets d’espace souterrain, y compris le stockage de pétrole et de gaz, de nourriture, centrales de stockage pompé, tunnels de transport, tunnels navigables, et évacuation des déchets radioactifs. Des analyses de stabilité mécanique et hydrologique des cavernes de stockage en Corée sont aussi présentées. Seit Anfang der 70er-Jahre, baute Korea in Folge raschen Industriewachstums viele lange Tunnelsund unterirdische Lagerungsräume. Fachkräfte im Bereich Gesteinsmechanik sammeltenwertvolle Erfahrungen über unterirdische Raumtechnologien. Dennoch stehen sie auch heute nochvor technischen Herausforderungen im Bereich Umweltschutz und Sicherheit. Zur Erläuterungdieser Herausforderungen in Korea folgt eine kurze technische Beschreibung der Projekte zurSchaffung unterirdischen Raumes für beispielsweise Öl- und Gaslagerung,Nahrungsmittellagerung, Pumpspeicherwerke, Straßen- und Wasserstraßentunnels, als auchLagerung radioaktiven Mülls. Mechanische und hydrologische Stabilitätsanalysen derLagerungsräume in Korea werden ebenfalls dargestellt.

Jan 1, 2003

By M. Asghari, R. Amiri, A. Haratian, M. Noue Parast, S. Haji

Today the roller screen has a wide range of applications in the steel-making industry. It is used for screening of green pellets before using the kiln. Since the appropriate size of a green pellet is -16+9 mm, there are different gaps between rollers that make green pellets classified in three categories: -9 mm (undersize), -16+9 mm (onsize) and +16mm (oversize). The efficiency of a roller screen is specified according to the weight percent of undersize in onsize as a fine material, and weight percent of onsize in oversize (loss). This efficiency is influenced by different operational parameters such as roller diameter, roller speed, and roller gap, material type of rollers and inclination of roller screen. This study investigates the effect of different material types of rollers in efficiency of Ardakan roller screens, located in the Yazd province of Iran. The rollers of the existing roller screens in this pelletising plant are made of polyurethane which according to this investigation, has a maximum lifetime of about six months. Operating the polyurethane rollers beyond its lifetime generates serious problems such as high wear of rollers, and consequently, material buildup on the roller surface which then significantly decreases the roller screen efficiency. So, after examining different roller materials, stainless steel 304 with higher surface roughness to help pellets move properly on the roller screen surface was selected as a solution to this problem. The new roller screen was constructed by Fakoor Meghnatis Spadana (FMS) and replaced the previous one. In this way, the maximum capacity of the roller screen was increased about 17% and the roller screen efficiency was increased about 15%. Keywords: Roller screen, green pellets, efficiency, onsize, operational parameters

Jan 1, 2020

By G. Coetzer

"Prior to operating a non-recovery coke pilot plant oven, it was essential to ascertain coal cake stability during the loading of a 1 m3 (1 m × 1 m × 1 m) coal cake into the cold pilot-plant oven by a pusher mechanism. Previously established laboratory-scale compaction parameters, to obtain coal cakes with sufficient stability, were employed during the loading tests of the coal cakes. Two different coals were evaluated, namely Waterberg semi-soft coking coal (sscc) and Oaky North hard coking coal.It was demonstrated that lower applied compaction forces (14%) can be utilized during 1 m3 compaction, in comparison to laboratory-scale tests, to obtain similar wet cake densities, owing to differences in the effect of frictional forces. Wet cake densities for Waterberg sscc improved slightly (3%) to 1.13 t/m3 when utilizing 79 t/m2 applied force for a 1 m3 coal cake, in comparison to laboratory-scale tests. Similar results were obtained for Oaky North hard coking coal, with a 6% density increase to 1.27 t/m3 at a similar applied force. Porosities decreased by 13% and 32% for Waterberg sscc and Oaky North coal, respectively, when 1 m3 compaction was compared to laboratory-scale tests. An opportunity exists to further decrease the porosities of Waterberg sscc during compaction, whereas acceptable compaction parameters were achieved for Oaky North hard coking coal. Most major vertical cracks and the partial collapse of coal cakes were mitigated, and high-stability coal cakes were obtained that could be successfully loaded into the pilot-plant coke oven by a pusher mechanism.Factors contributing to the instability of the coal cake during loading into the oven, such as vertical cracks, are (i) the cubic geometry (1 m3) of the coal cake, (ii) friction exerted by the oven floor, and (iii) mechanical problems, such as a misalignment between the pusher machine feeder plate and the oven floor. IntroductionOperation of the stamp-charging horizontal 1 t electrically heated coke pilot-plant oven at Exxaro Resources requires coal cake stability during the loading of a 1 m3 compacted coal cake into the oven. In this case, a pusher plate is utilized to push the coal cake into the oven over the oven floor. This is in contrast to a ‘spoon’ or bottom plate feeding mechanism as found in industrial horizontal coke ovens. The pusher plate loading mechanism dictates that the coal cake should possess high stability and inherent strength owing to frictional forces exerted by the oven floor. In order to obtain a coal cake of acceptable stability for the 1 t coke oven, various compaction parameters need to be verified and established."

Apr 1, 2019

By R. Singh, A. K. Dhawan, M. Dixit, H. Dev

ABSTRACT: The modulus of deformation of rock mass is an important engineering parameter required for the design of foundation of hydraulic structure and to study the interaction of rock mass and the structure at the foundation support. Different equipment and techniques are used to arrive at the design modulus value. Since any error in the estimation of modulus values results in multiplication of its effects in the analysis, it is necessary to know about the reliability of testing equipment and procedures. In the present study modulus values obtained by different in-situ equipment at different project sites have been compared. KURZFASSUNG: Der Verformungsmodul von der Felsenmasse ist technisch ein wichtiger Parameter, den man zur Konstuktion des Grunds fuer die Hydro – Tektonik, benoetigt um auch die gegenseitige Beeinflussung der Felsenmasse und der Tektonik am Traggrund zu betrachten. Verschiedene Geraete und Methoden werden angewandt, um den Ausfuehrungsmodul -Wert zu erreichen. Es ist erforderlich, die Zuverlaessigkeit der Pruefeinrichtung sowie des Verfahrens zu kennen, da irgend ein Fehler in der Abschaetzung von Modulwerten in der Analyse zu einer Vervielfachung ihrer Einwirkung fuehrt. In der vorligenden Arbeit werden die Modulwerte gewonnen aus unterschiedlichen Einrichtungen an Ort und Stelle and verschiedenen Projekt -Stellen mit einander verglichen. SOMMAIRE: Le module de deformation d’une roche est un parametre important pour la conception et realisation des ouvrages hydrauliques ainsi que pour etudier l’interaction de la roche et de la structure d’appuis de base. De divers equipments et techniques sont employes pour determiner la valeur de ce module de conception. Puisque l’effet d’une erreur d’evaluation du module devient multiplie dans l’analyse, il est necessaire de savoir la fiabilite des equipments et des methods qu’on ulilise. Dans cette etude, on a compare les valeurs des modules obtenues en employant les equipments in-situ aux sites differents de projets.

Jan 1, 2003

By S. Heukelman

Zincor uses O2 enrichment (up to 26% O2 in the fluidizing air) to increase the processing rate of zinc concentrates in the fluidized bed roasters. The aim of this study is to determine whether O2 enrichment can be reduced by introducing micro-pelletized concentrate into the feed blend, while maintaining current roaster feed rates and calcine quality. It was found that, with a load of 20% micro-pellets introduced into the feed blend, that O2 enrichment could be reduced by 60%. It was determined that entrained particles spend on average between 0.46 hour and 2.44 hour in the roaster, compared to particles remaining between 3.93 hour and 4.00 hour in the bed overflow. This compares well with a radioactive tracer test performed by Spira. The required reaction time for micro-pellets was found to be less than the residence time inside a Zincor roaster. The result achieved indicated that the average particle residence time inside the roaster was increased successfully in order to compensate for the longer reaction time required to roast micro-pellets at lower levels of O2 in the fluidizing air.

Jan 1, 2011

By C. Karageorgos, J. Sakala, A. Prinsloo, B. Ngambi

The sulphide flotation circuit at First Quantum Minerals’ Kansanshi mine in Zambia produced over 100,000 t of copper in 2019. For this circuit, mineralogical analysis has shown that the majority of the copper lost is hosted in fine liberated chalcopyrite, which is a paramagnetic mineral. The objective of this work was therefore to improve fine chalcopyrite recovery in the sulphide flotation circuit at Kansanshi, using a magnetic conditioning technology to agglomerate fine paramagnetic minerals. This theoretically increases the probability of attachment during collision and therefore improves recovery. A four-month paired ‘t’ test plant trial was carried out and comprised of consecutive ON-OFF periods with and without magnetic conditioning in the rougher flotation bank of the sulphide circuit. The experimental design involved assessment of recovery by size based on daily and weekly composite samples of feed and tails, sized using both wet-screening and cyclosizer. Both the daily plant data and the sized samples showed an increase in Cu recovery with magnetic conditioning ON. A 0.56% copper recovery improvement was measured with magnetic conditioning at a 99.4% confidence level. Keywords: Flotation, fine mineral, chalcopyrite, magnetic aggregation

Jan 1, 2020

By H. Gercek, M. Genis

In this paper, the effects of dynamic loads on the geometry of the failure zone occurring around underground openings, excavated in deep and massive rock masses, have been investigated. Following an elasto-plastic stress analysis of a two-dimensional underground opening under static conditions, dynamic loads have been applied. In the static and dynamic analyses, FLAC2D computer program has been utilized. Maximum ground acceleration value is selected as an input parameter. An index determining the relative size of the yield zone around the opening has been used for comparison of instabilities. In diesem Bericht wurden die Auswirkungen von dynamischen Lasten, auf die Geometrie der Bruchzone in der Umgebung von Untertagehohlräumen, die in tiefen und massiven Gebirge aufgefahren wurden, untersucht. Nach einer elasto-plastischen Spannungsanalyse eines zwei-dimensionalen Untertagehohlraumes unter statischen Beanspruchungen, wurden dynamische Lasten aufgebracht. Für die statischen und dynamischen Analysen wurde das FLAC2D Computer Programm verwendet. Die maximale Bodenbeschleunigung wurde als Eingabe Parameter gewählt. Zum Vergleichen der Unstabilitäten wurde ein Index verwendet, der die relative Grösse der Bruchzone in der Umgebung des Hohlraumes bestimmt. Dans ce papier, l’influence des chargements dynamique sur la géométrie de la zone en rupture observée autour des cavités profondes excavées dans des massifs rocheux ont été étudiées. Des chargements dynamiques ont été appliqués, dans le cas d’une modélisation bi-dimensionnelle de l’excavation d’une cavité profonde, sur la base d’une analyse élastoplastiques des contraintes en conditions statiques. Le code de calcul FLAC2D a été utilisé pour les analyses statiques et dynamiques. La valeur maximale de l’accélération du sol est choisie comme paramètre d’entrée. Un indice déterminant la taille relative de la zone sollicitée autour de la cavité a été utilisé pour comparer les différentes instabilités.

Jan 1, 2003

By Y. J. Cao

The purpose of this study was to investigate the flotation behaviour of unburned carbon in a cyclonic-static microbubble flotation column (FCSMC). The ash sample, collected from a power station in Guangdong province of China, was characterized by size analysis, X-ray diffraction, contact angle measurements, and X-ray fluorescence. The effect of the column flotation operating variables on the removal of unburned carbon from the fly ash was systematically studied. The feasibility of separating unburned carbon and ash was determined from the removal rate of unburned carbon (RUC) and loss on ignition (LOI). Within the range studied, the optimum diesel oil dosage was 1200 g/t, abies oil dosage was 600 g/t, pulp density was 20 per cent, superficial gas velocity was 1.4 cm/s, and circulating pressure was 0.20 MPa. The results indicate that the FCSMC technique is effective in removing the unburned carbon from the fly ash, which can be attributed to the generation of microbubbles and the continuous cyclonic circulation method. Under the optimized conditions, a cleaning ash with 2.13 per cent LOI and 94.21 per cent RUC was obtained.

Jan 1, 2012

By O. S. Tinkler, K. C. Sole

"Although the first large-scale application of copper recovery by solvent extraction took place in Zambia in the early 1970s, it is only in the last decade that this technology has become widely employed in this part of the world and is now a mainstay unit operation in copper hydrometallurgical flow sheets. The mineralogy of the ores of the African Copperbelt, and hence the characteristics of African leach liquors, differs significantly from those in Chile and the southwestern USA, where copper solvent extraction has had a long and successful history. These differences provide operators, metallurgists, reagent vendors, and engineers with many challenges: new approaches are needed to adapt solvent-extraction technology for successful implementation in this region. This paper examines typical operating practice in the African Copperbelt, discusses differences compared with other parts of the world, and looks at some of the challenges and opportunities presented by these flow sheets. IntroductionFollowing the success of the Rancher’s Bluebird and Bagdad solvent extraction and electrowinning (SX–EW) operations in Arizona in the late 1960s, the Tailings Leach Plant at Chingola, Zambia, became the first large-scale copper SX plant in the world, commissioned in 1974. Despite the equipment design now being outdated, this plant still continues to operate successfully, indicating the versatility and adaptability of this technology. Today, there are some 75 copper SX operations worldwide with cathode production above 10 kt/a. The top ten producers currently account for about 40% of the global 4.3 Mt/a SX–EW copper production. South America (predominantly Chile and Peru) is the largest copper cathodeproducing region, with annual production of some 2 Mt. The Central African Copperbelt (Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)) is second, with cathode production of 1.2 Mt/a, and North America (USA and Mexico) third, producing close to 0.8 Mt/a Cu (Solvay Cytec data, 2014). The remaining 0.35 Mt/a comes from all other regions combined (referred to as ‘Rest-of-World’)."

Jan 1, 2016

By H. L. Monro

CONTRIBUTION BY J. R. F. HANDLEY Mr Monro is to be congratulated on his concise treatment of a very complex subject. As a graduate with only Mathematics I in my curriculum, I am unable to comment on the mathematical treatment of the factors affecting his supply/demand model, but the logic does not escape me. The main conclusion is that any excess of supply to the spot gold market will depress the price in a normal market, and particularly in a falling market.

Jan 1, 1993

By P. C. van Aswegen

Owing to the strategic value of organic solvents, an investigation was conducted on the reduction of solvent losses at the Buffelsfontein solvent-extraction plant. It was established that the major cause of the high solvent losses was the high content of suspended solids in the uranium pregnant solution. To improve the clarification of the pregnant solution, it was decided to replace the conventional sand clarifiers that were being used at that stage. After pilot-plant tests had been conducted, a circulatorclarifier 16 m in diameter was installed to treat 9000 m3 per day of pregnant solution containing approximately 500p.p.m. of suspended solids. The clarifier was commissioned successfully, and yielded an overflow containing approximately 80 p.p.m. of suspended solids compared to the previous value of 250 p.p.m. This reduction in suspended solids immediately resulted in a decreasing trend In losses of organic solvent, finally yielding a reduction in these losses of approximately 50 per cent.

Jan 1, 1983

By E. J. Walls, W. C. Joughin

"In selecting a suitable method to sink a vertical shaft for underground access, a number of constraints influence the ultimate decision of where and how to develop the shaft, not least among these being safety, development and construction time, and cost. Two additional considerations stand out: these being geotechnical conditions and technology, the latter taking into account existing underground access. Assuming a project for which an existing underground excavation is available, it is tempting to build a shaft sinking project from the outset based on the raiseboring method, which has the potential to be the safest, fastest, and least expensive method provided that geotechnical conditions permit.And therein lies the rub: regardless of project time or cost constraints, when it comes to raiseboring a long (say, greater than 500 m), large diameter (greater than 4.5 m) shaft, the rock mass conditions ultimately dictate what method of shaft sinking will be feasible. Over the course of several studies for a particular project, several geotechnical analyses were carried out specifically for the purpose of developing a shaft by raiseboring. Risk analysis and experience showed that where the rock mass conditions indicated an unacceptably high risk potential, an alternative method needed to be considered, even if this meant increasing both the time and financial requirements.In this paper we present an overview of geotechnical investigation practices for shaft sinking. Decisionmaking thresholds for raiseboring or other methods of shaft sinking are discussed, including probabilities of failure, empirical rock mass classification, basic wedge failure, and back-analysis of a failed case. The design of appropriate support, and analysis of relative safety benefits for various shaft sinking methods, falls outside the scope of this work, and will be presented in a separate paper.IntroductionThe potential for rock mass failure during shaft development and construction affects whether a project is completed safely, on time and on budget. During the course of several studies to establish ventilation shafts for an underground expansion project, geotechnical analyses of rock mass stability and failure potential were carried out. The investigations were guided by the method of McCracken and Stacey (1989) together with insights from Peck and associates (Peck, 2000; Peck and Lee, 2007, 2008; Peck, Coombes, and Lee, 2011)."

Apr 1, 2019