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By Toru Yamasaki

"Bimodal lithostratigrafic assemblages are of significance in volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)-hosted lithology. The largest deposits are either bimodal-siliciclastic or maficsiliciclastic, and the presence of a significant siliciclastic component in the host stratigraphic succession favors large VMS deposits (e.g., Franklin et al., 2005; Barrie and Hannington, 1999). In the case of modern sub-seafloor VMS deposits in arc-related settings, the majority of deposits have been discovered in association with calderas or cauldrons (Halbach et al., 1993; Ishibashi and Urabe, 1995; Iizasa et al., 1999). These features are formed by the explosive eruption of silicic volcanoes, so that silicic host rocks and/or pumiceous volcanic clasts are generally observed around the ore deposits (e.g., Binns and Scott, 1993; Fiske et al., 2001). Caldera-like and graben-like morphological features therefore attract attention in geophysical surveys. However, silicic lithologies (dacite and rhyolite) normally contain only small amount of metallic elements (e.g., a few ppm to a few dozen ppm of Cu), whereas mafic rocks, such as basalts and basaltic andesites, contain significant amounts of metals (e.g., a few hundred ppm of Cu). Thus, the origin of metallic elements in VMS deposits associate with the silicic host rock remains unclear.The Iheya North Knoll is a volcanic complex in the middle of the Okinawa Trough. It is located in a young and actively spreading back-arc basin that extends for 1200 km behind the Ryukyu arc-trench system (Lee et al., 1980; Letouzey and Kimura, 1986). Several active hydrothermal fields have been recognized in the Iheya North Knoll. Mineralization at the Iheya North Knoll is characterized by relatively juvenile features consisting of VMS deposits with associated hydrothermal alterations to various degrees. Massive sphaleriterich sulfides at this site, recovered for the first time from beneath an active seafloor hydrothermal system, strongly resemble the black ore of the Kuroko deposits of the Miocene age in Japan (Takai et al., 2011). From February 11 to March 17, 2016, the SIP CK16-01 (Exp. 908) D/V Chikyu cruise was conducted at Iheya North Knoll and the rifting center of the Iheya Minor Ridge area, middle Okinawa Trough. The Iheya Minor Ridge area is also an active hydrothermal field, located ~30 km southeast of the Iheya North Knoll. In this area, basaltic rocks are widely distributed, and drilling has confirmed that the basaltic materials continue to ~120 m below the seafloor (Kumagai et al., in prep)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Alan Foley

The Portable Remote Operated Drill was developed in Sydney, Australia in the 1990’s. The device is a platform for many in-situ seabed sampling and coring tasks. The range of tools developed for use in PROD’s magazine now includes gas detectors, vane testers, penetrometers and corers. This paper presents aspects of the soils testing undertaken in deepwater since 2005, focusing on testing of methane hydrates and reefal accumulations. The varied selection of tools carried in PROD’s magazines allow the unit to perform several functions from the seafloor in one deployment.

Sep 24, 2006

By B. Prause

Ferromanganese crust samples collected from Central Pacific sea-mount areas became of special interest after surprisingly high nobel metal contents have been analyzed. Hydrogenetic crust growth is controlled by the conditions of the oceanic water column. Thicker encrustations show two crust generations of different age ranges. The mean values of the chemical composition state that the older generation is richer in P, Ca, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Pt and depleted in Fe, Ti, Co, Al, and Si. The differences apparently indicate a distinct change of the geochemical environment. The Pt concentrations vary up to 1800 ppb and do not clearly correlate to one of the other metals. This might indicate a bond of multiple nature. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the Pt concentrations in ferromanganese samples. Our models consider seawater and cosmic spherules as responsible Pt sources. In seawater the main species of dissolved Pt probably exist as the doubly negatively charged tetrachloro-complex. A precipitation of Pt in seawater may take place if the chloro-complex is decomposed by reduction of pt2+ to pt0. On the other hand, the Mn02 precipitation is caused by an oxidation of Mn2+ which is supplied from the oxygen-minimum zone. The large activation energy needed for the oxidation of divalent ~n" in solution has been recognised, and the resulting slowness in the formation of Mn(V1)-oxihydrate sug

Jan 1, 1989

By John Halkyard

Deep ocean mining is experiencing a rebirth following many years of low levels of activity. Large scale mining is being projected as just over the horizon. A lot has been made of the advances in deep water oil and gas developments over the last thirty years, and how this technology is directly applicable to ocean mining. The authors present their views on this from a perspective of a legacy of participating in the development of manganese nodule mining systems in the 1970s, followed by thirty years in the deepwater oil & gas arena. While it is true that great advances have been made in subsea technology, the differences between mining and oil and gas recovery should not be diminished. Fundamentally, oil and gas are stored in compact reservoirs under pressure. Any intervention leads to flow of the material up a pipe to the surface. The seabed hard minerals are stuck in place, either adhering to sticky pelagic sediment (nodules) or bonded together as hard rock (massive sulfides). The minerals require complex machinery in order to be extracted, sized, concentrated and lifted to the surface. Once at the surface the ore must be dewatered, de-fined and transferred to shore for processing. The overflow from this dewatered product must return to the sea in an environmentally satisfactory manner. These steps involve technology unique to mining that has to be addressed in a methodical fashion before commercial mining systems can be designed. The presentation will discuss the critical technical challenges of deepsea mining and thoughts on different routes to commercialization. The program will address the critical technical challenges, as perceived by the authors, and steps required to address them. Alternate development programs will be discussed focusing on nodules and sulfide. Keywords: manganese nodules, polymetallic sulfides, ocean mining

Jan 1, 2011

By John Parianos

"Seafloor mining provides significant potential economic benefits for many Pacific nations that may be “land poor” but “coastline rich,” meaning they have the potential to utilize and profit from the mineral wealth within their Exclusive Economic Zones that extend 200 nautical miles (360 km) out from their coastlines. Within international waters, mineral wealth is the “Common Heritage of Mankind” with additional benefits for sponsoring states and their people.The Solwara 1 Project build continues with significant progress over the last twelve months. The Seafloor Production Tools (SPTs), Subsea Slurry Lift Pump, riser pipe, launch and recovery systems and winches are now complete with delivery to test facilities and the vessel ongoing. Recent focus has been on submerged trials for the SPTs, but the vessel build continues to progress to schedule. Nautilus appreciates the great support thus far from our all our stakeholders.Our focus is to develop the world's first commercial high grade seafloor copper-gold project in an environmentally and socially responsible manner and to launch the deepwater seafloor resource production industry.Nautilus’s marine research continues, including a 3.5-month series of exploration cruises for Seafloor Massive Sulphides in the Bismarck Sea, as well as fabrication of purpose designed exploration equipment."

Jan 1, 2017

By Georgy A. Cherkashov

Two principal types of the hydrothermal fields in Atlantic - axial and off-axis - could be established based on their structural setting in the rift zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) (Figure1). The first (axial) type is represented by five high- and three low-temperature hydrothermal sites (Table 1). All of these fields are connected with young axial effusive volcanism and related to large linear volcanic ridges or central volcanoes at the inner floor of the rift valley. The hydrothermal activity here is controlled by the intersection between longitudinal magma feeding faults and transverse weakened zones characterized by high permeability. [ ] The hydrothermal sites of the second (off-axis) type (such as Rainbow, TAG, 24°30?N, Logatchev, newly discovered 13°N (Figure 2) and possibly 16°48?N sites) are related to large tectonic dislocations forming marginal scarps of the rift valley as well as transverse discontinuities.

Jan 1, 2003

By I. V. Kubrakova, O. A. Tyutyunnik, M. L. Getsina, A. M. Asavin

An analysis of noble metals (NM) in natural samples is most problematic. Determination of their traces in geochemical samples, in part, for the purpose of deposit evaluation, is a difficult analytical task. A number of international standard reference materials of rocks and ores, in which NM content is certified, is estimated at a half dozen. For example, in the International proficiency test for analytical geochemistry laboratories (GeoPT), which is held by the Department of Earth Sciences (The Open University, United Kingdom), the data for gold and platinum are observed very rarely, and the results obtained in different laboratories differ on 1-3 orders of magnitude. It is caused by low contents of NM in nature, by a variety of their complex and mineral species, as well as by a complicated matrix composition of platinum-containing objects. Among these objects are ferromanganese ores, enriched strongly with Fe, Mn, Ni, REEs - the elements hampering a precise determination of NM due to a complexity of instrumental inter-element correction. The absence of the reliable methods of NM determination in these ores drastically limits the possibility of deposit evaluation.

By Derek Ellis

There are two environmental issues which have only recently begun to need planning in detail for marine mining. One is the environmental consequences of mine closure; the other is environmental terrorism. In principle it is not difficult to predict the pattern and rate of biodiversity recovery after mine closure on metalliferous depositional seabeds. 1-5 years to a self-sustaining community of organisms is a generalized guideline, depending on depth and particulate composition. The rate and pattern of biodiversity recovery on some metalliferous hard-rock habitats is far less predictable due to the patchiness and rareness of the habitat. Ecoterrorism at mines, whether on-land or marine, is now to be expected. A good example of resource industry ecoterrorism is the fire-bombing of logging and cement trucks in Oregon in 2001. But there have also been bombs at mine sites, as at Asbestos, Quebec. It is also possible to regard some resource-loss lawsuits as frivolous, hence forms of ecoharassment. Marine mining operations should take note of the development of environmental terrorism (and terrorism in general) and its various manifestations and impacts. Potentially these range from minor work stoppage inconveniences, to serious financial risk jeopardizing the economics of a mine, to jail for company executives, managers and environmental staff, and to harassment and killing of mine personnel.

Jan 1, 2005

By Michael J. Cruickshank

The State of Hawaii has expressed concern over deterioration of the tourist beaches at Waikiki, which are becoming seriously depleted of sand. In this report the options for acquisition, transportation and placement .of sand on the beach are examined with respect to feasibility and cost. Ten sources of sand were compared, including commercial, from Australia, Maui, and Barbers Point (3), deposits offshore of the Reef Runway (3), offshore of Waikiki (3), and offshore of Molokai from the Penguin Bank (1).

Jan 1, 1991

By Kira Mizell, James Hein

"INTRODUCTIONThe majority of studies on the genesis of ferromanganese crusts focus on the adsorption and accumulation of metals, and therefore cations, especially those of economic interest. From these studies, a first-order electrochemical model has been proposed based on the zero point of charge of the manganese and iron oxides at typical seawater pH, which assumes that positively charged ions will bind to the negatively charged manganese oxide phase and neutral and negatively charged ions will bind to the slightly positively charged iron oxide phase (e.g. Koschinsky and Halbach,1995; Hein et al., 2013). While the theory behind this model is sound, and it has been consistent for many elements, other elements may not follow the model (Koschinsky and Hein, 2003), and thus requires additional investigation and validation. As a new approach to understanding element accumulation in ferromanganese crusts and to test the proposed electrochemical model, this study investigates the surface chemistry of the halogens, which occur as negatively charged ions in seawater and have high and consistent concentrations in seawater.ResultsBulk Halogen ConcentrationsTo determine the distribution of halogens in ferromanganese crusts, an initial dataset of 24 FeMn crusts (24 bulk and 19 layer samples) from throughout the global ocean, including the Arctic and the Southern Oceans, has been analyzed for chlorine and fluorine content using ion-selective electrode. Although both Cl and F are conservative in seawater, their content in crusts shows striking variability (Cl: 326 - 13310 ppm; F: 146 – 1048 ppm for non-phosphatized crusts) and has no obvious geographic relationship to ocean basin and no correlation with water depth, latitude, or longitude. We plan to have bromine concentration data to present at the time of this conference."

Jan 1, 2017

By D. S. Cronan

Pitcairn Island, the last remaining British Colony in the Pacific Ocean, falls in the S.E. Pacific. Its location, on top of a hotspot volcano, suggests the presence of submarine hydrothermal deposits in its EEZ. Such environments are known to contain hydrothermal mineral deposits, as in the case of Loihi submarine volcano near Hawaii, and Macdonald and Teahitia-Mehitia seamounts in the South Pacific. The hydrothermal deposits in these areas are formed as a result of the interaction of seawater with hot volcanic rock, producing a hydrothermal fractionation sequence comprising sulphides of Fe, Cu and Zn, oxides and silicates of Fe and oxides of Mn. In 1988, a GLORIA survey from the RRS Charles Darwin confirmed the existence of recent volcanism within the Pitcairn Island EEZ. A later bathymetric and sampling survey by the FS Sonne of the region round Pitcaim Island revealed submarine volcanoes approximately 80 km ESE of the island. Hydrothermal mineral deposits were recovered from them, and comprise finely laminated crusts of Fe oxides containing up to 50% Fe, and laminated hydrothermal Mn crusts up to 5 cm thick. Both morphologically and chemically the latter are similar to those from mid-ocean ridge and island arc settings, containing up to 50% Mn, associated with sulphides, and represent first discovery of such deposits associated with mid-plate "hotspot" volcanoes. Massive sulphide deposits are thought to occur within the volcanic pile.

Jan 1, 1992

By Paul C. Rusanowski

Mining is a waste intensive industry, oftentimes producing hundreds of kilograms of waste rock and tailings for every gram of metal recovered. Disposal of mine tailings is a major concern in most mining operations. In Southeast Alaska the steep terrain and high seismic hazard province limits cost effective opportunities for land disposal of tailings. The lack of infrastructure and long travel distances generally limits secondary utilization of tailings, as well. Since the mines are located close to tidewater, submarine tailings disposal is an attractive option for tailings management. At the present time the EPA will not issue a permit that authorized marine tailings disposal from any mining process that includes flotation technology. Upland disposal is the "Best available technology" and must be used. Consideration of submarine disposal is generally precluded because the tailings are contaminated with fluids from the flotation process. However, when developing technological solutions to minimize environmental disturbance, destruction, pollution, and risk, submarine tailings disposal deserves another evaluation. In Southeast Alaska it may be the "Best available technology" based on an assessment of all issues and concerns in these mining projects.

Jan 1, 1991

By Timothy F. McConachy

Between April 2000 and April 2002, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) Division of Exploration and Mining has led 6 research expeditions totalling 160 days ship time in waters of Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Indonesia and Australia. Five expeditions were undertaken aboard the Australian research vessel Franklin following successful competitive research proposals, and the sixth used the Indonesian vessel Baruna Jaya VIII (see Table 1). In addition, two CSIRO participants joined JOIDES Resolution for the Ocean Drilling Program Leg 193 in the Manus Basin of PNG. The major scientific objective underpinning these expeditions was to locate and study present-day seafloor and sub-seafloor hydrothermal ore-forming activity in order to develop improved methods of exploring for ancient mineral deposits on land that originally formed by similar processes. The research has been supported financially by a number of Australian-based mineral companies, by Australian international aid agencies, and by appropriation funds from CSIRO, and was conducted in collaboration with researchers from Australia, Indonesia, Portugal, New Zealand, United States of America, South Korea, and the host nations. Building upon earlier successes in the 1986-1997 PACLARK-PACMANUS programs in the Woodlark and Manus Basins of PNG, we have sought to examine a wider range of geological settings in which ancient orebodies are inferred to have formed, including both volcanic and sediment-hosted environments. We have now visited volcanic arcs, fore-arc and triple-junction related submarine volcanoes, and back arc basins associated with convergent plate margins in the SW Pacific and SE Asia, as well as conceptual Mississippi-Valley-type targets associated with warm seeps at passive margins in the Great Australian Bight (see Figure 1). Surveys ranged from northern Sulawesi via far western Bismarck volcanic arc near PNG-Indonesia border, through the eastern Manus Basin and the Tabar-Lihir-Tanga-Feni chain in PNG, the western Solomon Islands festoon, the San Cristobal arc, parts of the Vitiaz arc, to the northern and southern New Hebrides arc in the Solomons and Vanuatu.

Jan 1, 2002

By Robert M. Owen

The rare earth elements (REE1s; atomic number 57 -71) exhibit a coherent chemistry, are widespread in nature, and tend to occur in characteristic concentrations in different geochemical phases. Because of their predictable chemistry, the REE's-are highly useful as indicators or tracers of geochemical processes, and are often used as such in investigations of the genesis of terrestrial ore deposits. However, analogous applications of the REE's to the study of marine mineral deposits have been constrained by our limited understanding of the marine geochemical cycle of these elements. For example, a continuing area of uncertainty in this regard involves the so-called "REE Mass Balance Problem." This problem refers to the fact that detailed geochemical mass balance calculations typically predict a significant imbalance for the REE's; i.e., the calculations predict that REE removal rates from seawater are 11-18 times greater than their input rates. Yet all other chemical considerations indicate that the REE budget should be roughly in balance. Recent studies at The University of Michigan suggest the solution to this problem lies in understanding the the role of seafloor hydrothermal activity in the marine budget of the REE's. Geochemical analyses of hydrothermal sediments from two Pacific sites (East pacific Rise at 19°s and the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge at 45°N) clearly show that the REE component of hydrothermal sediments is primarily acquired via scavenging from seawater. Iron oxyhydroxides, which form as precipitates when hydrothermal solutions are debouched onto the seafloor, are the active scavenging agent. Although the REE content of hydrothermal sediments generally increases with increasing distance from the rise crest, this increase is especially pronounced for sediments deposited below the lysocline,

Jan 1, 1989

By John Parianos

2013 has seen good progress for Nautilus Minerals and our projects due to the determination of our people and the continued support from shareholders and stakeholders. Our focus remains Solwara 1 in Papua New Guinea for which the build continues on the seafloor production tools, subsea slurry pump and riser and lifting system.

Sep 14, 2011

By Joshua Brien

DEEP SEABED MINING IN NATIONAL JURISDICTION: KEY CHALLENGES The talk focuses on the key challenges that arise from deep-seabed mineral exploration and development within areas of national jurisdiction, including legal and institutional challenge and options to address these challenges. Joshua Brien has acted for a range of Governments throughout the world, including smallisland States and the developing world. This has included engagement in matters before the International Court of Justice, the Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in contentious and advisory proceedings, including provisional measures applications and prompt release cases.

Jan 1, 2018

By Hunsoo Choi, Sang-Mo Koh

Manganese nodule, the aggregate of fine grained manganese oxide minerals, is very brittle and fragile. In exploitation of manganese nodule, manganese nodules are easily broken into small pieces or powder during collecting and lifting from the sea floor. The broken manganese nodule under few millimeters and bottom sediment pumped up with manganese nodule affect to the lifting process. In this study, we tried to understand the physical properties of the powdered manganese nodule and bottom sediment, and to know the effect which may be rised to the actual mining of manganese nodules.

By C. L. Mardock

The U. S. Bureau of Mines participated in a two-year joint State of Oregon/Department of Interior Placer Task Force study on the economic and environmental aspects of Oregon's marine placer deposits. The effort culminated in a research cruise off the southwest coast of Oregon to investigate the geological and biological characteristics of the continental shelf deposits. The Bureau's role was to collect and study the placer material off the continental shelf and to determine its strategic potential and significance. In-depth characterization of the sediments by optical and electron microscopy verify that the placer material from Cape Blanco contains up to 3 pct ilmenite, 0.5 pct chromite, and small amounts of zircon and gold. However, harsh sea conditions and equipment failures prevented sampling below a four-foot depth at the Cape Blanco site. Results to date indicate that the deposits sampled off the southwest coast of Oregon do not represent a significant source of strategic minerals. However, further study of the deeper sediments off Cape Blanco may uncover significant concentrations of chromite. This presentation encompasses the site geology, the geophysical and biological activities of the expedition, and the results of the Bureau's mineralogical and chemical investigation. The combined findings of the Bureau and other Task Force agencies have provided information needed to expand the country's limited knowledge of marine mineral resources and has assisted state and federal agencies in the formulation of offshore mineral policies.

Jan 1, 1991

By Nicholas Dyriw, Georgy Cherkashov, Tamara Stepanova, John Parianos, Anna Firstova

"Seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits are a new frontier in global metal resources. Hydrothermal chimney’s (black smokers) precipitate Cu, Zn, Ag and Au rich from hot fluids (>250°C) during interaction with cold seawater ~2-4°C. Here we compare the sulfide mineralogy and geochemistry of Cu-sulfide chimney samples from two different tectonic locations: Solwara 1, a Cu-rich, transitional arc-back arc (Arc-BA) type SMS ore deposit and; Ashadze-1, a Cu-rich, ocean ridge type SMS deposit (Hannington et al., 2011).This work represents the first stage of a project aimed at investigating and understanding the significance of high Cu concentrations in SMS systems. Comparing these particular systems is significant because they share critical similarities despite being located at different seafloor depths, hosted in different rocks and are located in two different endmember tectonic environments. Critical similarities include: 1) age of mineralization, ~6000 years to current (Firstova et al., 2016; Johns et al., 2014); and 2) high copper contents, with chalcopyrite dominating sulfide mineralization (Firstova et al., 2016; Lipton, 2012). The reason for high Cu concentrations in both of these locations is still not entirely understood. The youthfulness (<6000y to current) of both locations is important because it reduces the possibility of increased zone refining, allowing us to understand the source characteristics better. This research will advance our understanding of the copper systematics of SMS systems by investigating and comparing the mineralogical and geochemical signatures from two, Cu-rich, end-member type SMS sites."

Jan 1, 2017

By Guillaume Blanc

The development of marine mining in the offshore areas adjacent to most of the insular and continental European States is limited by the complex and evolving nature of its legal regime on the basis of the relevant applicable international, European and domestic rules. As the development of marine mining requires investments in capital-intensive technologies, the bankable feasibility of marine mining projects is very much dependent on the legal security of mining rights, assets and operations in offshore areas. This is quite difficult to assess due to the constant accumulation of applicable and potentially conflicting international and domestic laws in these areas, in particular the coastal zone, the territorial sea, and the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The often conflicting interaction of international treaties, laws and regulations in offshore areas raises specific and major issues in terms of permitting processes, access rights, ownership rights over the mineral resources explored and mined, flag vs. coastal State jurisdiction over mining vessels and marine mining equipment, international environmental liabilities, and unitisation and multi-forum disputes. In addition, the determination of jurisdiction and the legal regime under which marine mining could take place is becoming even more complex with the development of EU Law and the recent revision of the International Law of the Sea, particularly the new extension regime of the EEZ and jurisdiction over the continental shelf.

Jan 1, 2004