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By A. J. May

THE Star shaft is near the north boundary of the group of mining claims belonging to the Ground Hog Unit of the American Smelting and Refining Co., near Vanadium, N. Mex. The shaft bins and surface plant are served by a siding from the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railroad, and this factor of railroad transportation influenced the choice of site. This paper describes the shaft sinking only, and does not cover the surface plant or other parts of the mine or its equipment. A. J. MAY is Engineer in Charge of Shaft Sinking, Ground Hog Unit, American Smeling and Refining Co, Vanadium, New Mexico. El Paso Meeting, October 1948. TP 2737 A. Discussion of this paper (2 copies) may be sent to Transactions AIME before Feb. 28, 1950. Manuscript received Nov. 29, 1948; revision received June 22, 1949. Experience with this shaft seems of interest because of the mechanical mucking, good rate of progress, and the costs obtained at the present level of labor and material costs. The shaft has four compartments, as shown in fig. 1. Equipment: Riddell Mucker: The mucking was done by a clamshell bucket and a Riddell mucker, which, as in other shafts sunk with this machine, consisted of a carriage mounted on axles with double flanged wheels that traveled back and forth on a swinging track, parallel to the long axis of the shaft (fig. 2 to 6). Three air motors were mounted on the carriage; one hoisted the clam, one operated the bucket opening and closing device, and the third moved the carriage along the track. The carriage was designed with guide shoes and could be hoisted to the surface in either skip compartment without trouble (fig. 4). During blasting operations the clam was tied on the rails and the carriage was hoisted up a few sets to protect it from flying rock. No attempt was made to hoist the carriage and clam together lest the clam catch in the timbers. The track on which the carriage operated was built of extra heavy 6 in. pipe with 1x2 in. strap welded on top for rails. A Yzx4 in. angle was welded on the bottom of the 6 in. pipe with a 1 in. round rod welded in the angle for a filler and additional strength. The end or cross pieces of the track which kept the track to gauge, were also made of reinforced, heavy 6 in. pipe and were bolted to the long members on which the carriage traveled (fig. 2 and 3). This section of track was used, instead of heavy railroad rails, for two reasons: (1) this section would bend before it snapped and was much safer for the men in the bottom; and (2) it was a better blasting shield, and protected the timbers better, in fact, only five wall plates were broken by blasting in 1926 ft of shaft, although 150 to 225 lb of 40 pct powder was loaded per round, depending on the ground conditions. The swinging track was supported by four % in. hoisting cables anchored to the end plates. There were also four safety cables fastened two to three sets above the carriage, which would catch the carriage if one of the supporting cables should fail for any reason (fig. 7). Clamshell Buckets: Two clams were used, each of % yard capacity, both manufactured by Blaw-Knox, Nos. 662 and 663. The No. 663 clam was 4 in. wider and 5 in. shorter than the No. 662, but seemed to dig and load more satisfactorily. It was easier to hoist and lower when it came up for repair. It did not turn over as easily, had less spill

Jan 1, 1951

By M. T. Abasov

The work suggests an approach to the problem of optimally planning the drilling and development of gas fields. The approach is based on systems analysis and allows a joint optimal choice of the total number of wells in the field, their spacing in the reservoir, the diameter of production tubing, drilling dynamics, the number and spacing of drilling platforms and well pattern schemes for each plat- form as well. The optimal solution satisfies the set of technical- economical requirements and provides a minimum value of discounted total expenditures (capital costs plus operating costs). A mathematical model of the problem is presented. This work represents an extension of the authors&apos; previous investigations that formulated and solved problems of optimal drilling of oil and gas deposits by directional wells [1] and problems of optimal control of the number of active wells in multi-reservoir oil and gas fields [2], [3]. For construction of the mathematical model we choose a range (Nmin, Nmax) of possible values of the total number of wells, N, which should be drilled in the deposit. Here Nmin, Nmax are minimum and maximum numbers of wells correspondingly, that should be drilled into the reservoir. N[€](Nmin = N1, ... N[o], ..., Nm = Nmax). For simplicity a one-reservoir gas field is considered. It is assumed that: (a) wells are spaced in the reservoir uniformly, (b) there is a certain algorithm providing a uniform spacing of the given number N[o] ([0]=l, . . . , m) of wells in the reservoir, (c) the diameters of the production tubing for all the wells are the same. The relation Qz (x), i.e. the dependence of the cumulative output of gas from the cumulative "well-years" of operations is constructed for each diameter dZ from the given range of diameters d1< ...< dr.

Jan 1, 1977

By Joseph J. Yancik

From previous work, it was learned that relative strengths of blasting agents can be reasonably predicted from heats of detonation modified by their (D/D*)2 ratio.(1) Bulk Strength = Q x d x (D/D*)2 x K (1) In this equation Q is the ideal heat released during detonation, d is density, D represents actual detonation velocity while D* is ideal velocity. An energy transfer coefficient, K, was used to account for differences among rock strata in response to explosive loading. This equation gave reasonable, field supported strength values for oxygen balanced blasting agents. For aluminized nitrocarbonitrates and slurries which have high Q&apos;s the rating system predicted better strengths than were shown in the field. This discrepancy was felt to be related primarily to problems in calculating Q and D*. Theoretical calculations cannot take into account varying energy contributions from particulated aluminums whose reactivities vary substantially with physical properties. One approach to circumventing this problem would be to use a characteristic Q that is dependent on mass reactivity of ingredients as components in explosive formulations. Since the underwater testing method is capable of measuring a functional, relative energy release, it was chosen for study.

Jan 1, 1971

By P. Chiotti, G. R. Kilp

Thermal, metallographic, vapor pressure, and X-ray data were obtained to establish the phase diagram for the zinc-zzrconiz~m system. Five compounds corresponding to the stoi-chiometric formulas ZrZn, ZrZn,, ZrZn,, ZrZn,, and ZrZn14 were observed. All these compounds, with the exception of ZrZn2, which melts congruently at 1180°C under constrained zinc-vapor conditions, undergo pexitectic reactians. The temperature at which the zinc vapor pressure is I atm for a series of alloys was determined from vapor-pressure measurements. The data obtained are summarized in the construction of a I-atm-pressure phase diagram and a phase diagram corresponding to a pressure of less than 10 atm. THE purpose of this investigation was to establish the phase diagram for the zinc-zirconium system. Thermal, metallographic, vapor pressure, and X-ray data were employed in determining the phase regions. Partial investigations of this system have been conducted by Gebhardt1 and Carlson and Borders.&apos; Carlson and Borders studied the high-zirconium region and established the existence of a eutectic at 69 wt pct Zr with a melting point of 1015°C. The terminal phases of the eutectic horizontal were shown to be an intermetallic compound ZrZn and a solid solution of ß zirconium containing 21 wt pct Zn. The ß solid solution decomposes into ZrZn and a zirconium at 750°C. The eutectoid composition is given as 15 wt pct Zn, and the solubility of zinc in a zirconium at temperatures below 750°C is indicated to be negligible. Gebhardt studied the zinc-rich region and observed a lowering of the melting point of zinc from 419.5" to 416°C and temperature horizontals at 545" and970°C. Some preliminary observations by Chiotti, Ratliff, and Kilp were reported by Hayes.2 pietrokowsky3 has reported the compound ZrZn2 to have a cubic MgCu2 structure with ao = 7.396A. MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The metals employed in the preparation of alloys were Bunker Hill slab zinc or Baker analyzed reagent granulated zinc, both 99.99 pct pure and hafnium-free iodide-process crystal bar zirconium obtained from the Westinghouse Electric Corp. The zirconium contained 200 ppm Fe, 200 ppm Si, 100 ppm C, and minor amounts of other impurities. The zirconium was milled or machined into thin chips or shavings. These were cleaned with a nitric-hydrofluoric acid solution, rinsed with water, and acetone, and dried just prior to their use in alloy preparation. The granulated zinc was similarly cleaned using dilute nitric or hydrochloric acid. Weighed quantities of these materials, 20 to 30 g total, were mixed and pressed at 20,000 to 70,000 psi to give relatively dense compacts. During the early part of this investigation the pressed compacts were placed in MgO-15 wt pct MgF, crucibles which were then sealed inside of quartz ampules. The compacts were given various prolonged heat treatments prior to their use for thermal analyses, or vapor-pressure measurements. Because of expansion of the compacts and the relatively high zinc vapor pressure it was difficult to heat to the melting temperatures of the alloys without failure of the quartz ampules. Homogenization at temperatures below the melting temperature gave brittle, porous alloys unsuitable for metallographic examination. It was also difficult to prevent condensation and segregation of zinc on the colder parts of the quartz ampules during heating and cooling operations. These problems were eliminated to a great extent by the use of tantalum crucibles. Tantalum proved to be a satisfactory container with little or no reaction between the alloys and the tantalum. Small tantalum thermocouple wells were successfully welded in the bottom of these crucibles. Pressed compacts were sealed inside the tantalum crucibles by welding on preformed caps under an argon atmosphere. Heat treating and differential thermal analysis were combined into a single operation. The experimental sample assembly is shown in Fig. 1. This assembly was enclosed inside a stainless-steel tube heating chamber which could be evacuated and filled with an inert gas. The thermocouple leads were brought out of the heating chamber between two rubber gaskets used to provide a vacuum seal for the water-cooled head. Most of the compounds in this system undergo peritectic decomposition. After heating above the temperature of a particular peritectic horizontal the sample was cooled to just below the peritectic temperature and held at temperature for several hours. The sample was then reheated through the peritectic temperature and the size of the thermal arrest, if still present, compared with the one previously obtained. If the thermal arrest was not characteristic for the alloy composition being investigated its magnitude diminished and repeated cycling and annealing eventually eliminated it. The peritectic thermal arrests characteristic of a particular composition were established in this manner.

Jan 1, 1960

By C. G. Bieber, R. F. Decker

The effects of minor constituents on the malleability of nickel alloys are described. These effects are related to the atomic diameter, valence, and position on the Periodic Table. The basic methods for removal or neutralization of deleterious elements are then reviewed. Finally, practical methods for melting nickel alloys are described in detail and related to minor constituent control. L HE first malleable nickel was produced by Fleit-man in about 1870 by the addition of manganese and magnesium to the molten metal to counteract the harmful effects of sulfur. Merica and Waltenbergl explained the mechanism by which these elements accomplished the desired result. They showed that sulfur in concentrations in excess of about 0.005 pct produced films of a brittle low melting eutectic of nickel-nickel sulfide which completely surrounded the grains. When manganese was added to molten nickel it reacted with the sulfur to form manganese sulfide which precipitated as widely scattered globules in the grain boundaries. The further addition of small amounts of magnesium converted the sulfur to a very stable sulfide of magnesium which was relatively insoluble in both the liauid and solid states and therefore occurred as finely divided particles within the grains where it had relatively little detrimental effect upon the malleability of nickel or its alloys. The practice of treating nickel with manganese and magnesium came to be called "deoxidation" and was employed without appreciable modification for the commercial production of wrought nickel and high nickel alloys (in this paper—50 pct or more nickel) until about 1930 even though the results were never entirely satisfactory. At that time a more extensive study was made of the effects of minor constituents on malleability and metallurgical quality. The results, small portions of which have been published,2-4 are presented here with other pertinent data. EFFECTS OF MINOR CONSTITUENTS UPON NICKEL Systematic additions were made of 0.5 pct or less of each of most of the elements of the periodic ta- ble. It was established in this study that some minor constituents other than manganese and magnesium were extremely influential. The malleability, as evaluated by the reduction of area in tension tests, depended roughly on temperature as shown in Fig. 1. Four temperature zones are of interest; the cold malleable zone (up to about 1000° F), the red short zone from roughly 1000° to 1500&apos; F, the hot malleable zone around 2000° F and the incipient melting zone. Most of the malleability problems are associated with the red short zone and the discussion will concern this mainly. The reduction of area in normal tensile tests on high-purity nickel (see curve A of Fig. 1) appeared to have no

Jan 1, 1962

By William T. Folwell

The Lucky Friday mine east of Mullan, Idaho, is an outstanding example of a property in the Coeur dlAlene district where a small and insignificant-appearing silver-lead-zinc vein at the surface has changed at depth into a large vein of great importance. The Lucky Friday vein has little if any surface expression and above the 1200 level the ore shoots are small and discontinuous. Between the 1200 level and 2450 level, the lowest developed level, the main ore shoot has shown remarkable improvement on each succeeding lower level, and today the mine is one of the major lead-silver producers in the Coeur d&apos;Alene district. History: The Lucky Friday property is on the north side of the South Fork of the Coeur d&apos;Alene River in sections 25, 26 and 35, T. 48 N., R. 5 E., Hunter mining district, Shoshone County, Idaho. This is about one mile east of the town of Mullan, which serves the eastern portion of the Coeur d&apos;Alene district. The southern part of the property is crossed by a branch line of the Northern Pacific Ry. and by U. S. Highway 10. This highway is the principal road crossing the panhandle of Idaho and connects the district with Spokane, Wash., on the west and Missoula, Mont., on the east. The main portal and surface plant of the Lucky Friday mine is at an elevation of 3365 ft, only a short distance above the valley floor and a few hundred feet from U. S. Highway 10. so the mine is readily accessible for year-round operation. The property is comprised of six claims, known as the Lucky Friday group, owned outright by the Lucky Friday Silver-Lead Mines Co. There are four patented claims, Good Friday, Lucky Friday, Northern Light, and Lucky Friday Fraction No. 2 (Mineral Survey No. 3028), and two unpatented claims, Hunter and Creek. In addition, Lucky Friday owns an undivided one-half interest in the Hunter Creek property. which adjoins the Lucky Friday group on the north: a 90 pct interest in the mineral rights in the Jutila Ranch (160A), which adjoins the Lucky Friday group on the east; and a 60 pct interest in the Lucky Friday Extension claim group, which adjoins the Lucky Friday group on the west. The company also has a long-term mining lease on the Hunter Ranch, which adjoins the Lucky Friday group on the west. The claims of the Lucky Friday group were located between 1899 and 1906. The Lucky Friday Mines Co. was organized in 1906 and did considerable exploration work by surface trenching and shallow underground workings, only to see the property sold by the Shoshone county sheriff to satisfy labor claims totaling $2000 in 1912. Another firm, Lucky Friday Mining Co., bought the claims in 1914 and spent 12 years driving what is now known as the tunnel level crosscut. This tunnel intersected a vein previously exposed in a higher tunnel, but it was only a few inches wide. The vein was followed a short distance westerly but was so unpromising that the work was discontinued in favor of extending the main crosscut tunnel several hundred feet north. No ore was found and all work was discontinued. The property was held in such low esteem by the firm that it let taxes amounting to less than $15 a year go delinquent for nine years. Then the property lay idle for two more years until in 1938 John Sekulic, a Mullan service station operator, took a lease, with a $15,000 purchase option, on the advice of an old miner who had worked in the mine. Sekulic re-opened the tunnel level crosscut and explored the vein with an easterly drift for about 200 ft. The vein was too narrow to be of commercial value but was believed interesting enough to warrant further exploration at depth. Lacking funds to explore the vein at depth, Sekulic tried to get the district&apos;s larger operating companies to take over his lease and option. They were not interested because of the lean tunnel level showing and the fact that the property lay between the White Ledge fault on the north and Osburn fault on the south, an area which geologists always considered unworthy of exploration. Sekulic then organized the present company and assigned his lease and option to it for stock. This was in 1939. Enough stock was sold locally to finance sinking of a shaft 100 ft from the tunnel level east drift. The vein at this additional depth still was not commercial but showed some improvement. Treasury stock was offered at 5 to 10C a share

Jan 1, 1959

By A. R. Gregory

A shear wave velocity laboratory apparatus and techniques for testing rock samples under simulated subsurface conditions have been developed. In the apparatus, two electromechanical transducers operating in the frequency range 0.5 to 5.0 megahertz (MHz: megacycles per second) are mounted in contact with each end of the sample. Liquid-solid interfaces of Drakeol-aluminum are used as mode converters. In the generator transducer, there is total mode conversion from P-wave energy to plain S-wave energy. S-wave energy is converted back to P-wave energy in the motor transducer. Similar transducers without mode converters are used to measure P-wave velocities. The apparatus is designed for testing rock samples under axial or uniform loading in the pressure range 0 to 12,000 psi. The transducers have certain advantages over those used by King, 1 and the measurement techniques are influenced less by subjective elements than other methods previously reported. An electronic counter-timer having a resolution of 10 nanoseconds measures the transit time of ultrasonic pulses through the sample; elastic wave velocities of most homogeneous materials can be measured with errors of less than 1 percent. 5- and P-wave velocity measurements on Bandera sandstone and Solenholen limestone are reported for the axial pressure range 0 to 6,000 psi and for the uniform pressure range 0 to 10,000 psi. The influence of liquid pore saturants on P- and S-wave velocity is investigated and found to be in broad agreement with Biot&apos;s theory. In specific areas, the measurements do not conform to theory. Velocities of samples measured under axial and uniform loading are compared and, in general, velocities measured under uniform stress are higher than those measured under axial stress. Liquid pore fluids cause increases in Poisson&apos;s ratio and the bulk modulus but reduce the rigidity modulus, Young&apos;s modulus and the bulk compressibility. INTRODUCTION Ultrasonic pulse methods for measuring the shear wave velocity of rock samples in the laboratory have been gradually improved during the last few years. Early experimental pulse techniques reported by Hughes et al.2 and by Gregory 3 were beset by uncertainties in determining the first arrival of the shear wave (S-wave) energy. Much of this ambiguity was caused by the multiple modes propagated by piezoelectric crystals and by boundary conversions in the rock specimens. Shear wave velocity data obtained from the critical angle method, described by Schneider and Burton4 and used later by King and Fate sand by Gregory, 3,6 are of limited accuracy, and interpreting results is too complicated for routine laboratory work. The mode conversion method described by Jamieson and Hoskins7 was recently used by King 1 for measuring the S-wave velocities of dry and liquid-saturated rock samples. Glass-air interfaces acted as mode converters in the apparatus, and much of the compressional (P-wave) energy apparently was eliminated from the desired pure shear mode. A more detailed discussion of the current status of laboratory pulse methods applied to geological specimens is given in a review by Simmons.8 A new shear wave velocity laboratory apparatus has been developed for testing rock samples under elevated pressures. This apparatus employs liquid-solid interfaces as mode converters. The technique for generating pure shear waves at liquid-solid interfaces was developed from studies of critical angle methods.6 Two identical transducers are placed in contact with opposite ends of the rock sample, one transducer acting as an ultrasonic energy emitter or generator and the other acting as an ultrasonic energy receiver or motor. The P-wave energy emitted from the piezoelectric crystal in the generator transducer is converted into pure S-wave energy at the Drakeol-aluminum

By S. R. Mitchell, M. C. Fuerstenau, A. M. Gaudin

The two principal attributes of a thickener pulp are its settling rate and the ultimate pulp density of the thickened mud. Testing for evaluation of thickening attributes of a pulp has usually been done batch-wise by placing the pulp in a one-liter glass graduated cylinder and noting the position of the boundary between clear liquor and mud as a function of time. Refinements in testing have included repulping a thickened mud to various dilutions and evaluating the settling rate on these various repulped muds. This is considered to make possible an estimate of the settling rate as a function of pulp density and therefore to pinpoint the slowest settling pulp which ought to be critical from the standpoint of thickener plant design. Finally, tests are sometimes made with model-size continuous thickeners of arbitrary size. In batch tests it is generally accepted that the behavior of a pulp is described by a curve such as the one shown in Fig. 1, in which the position of the boundary between clear liquor and mud (the mudline) is plotted against time. It has also been assumed that the initial settling rate (the slope of the line segment AB) is descriptive of the pulp and independent of the size and shape of the container. Where the settling rate is slower and clearly a function of time (portion CD of the settling curve), it has been assumed that the data are not of much use because of the intrusion of compacting phenomena. The next important datum is the height, PE, which is a measure of the so-called ultimate pulp density. This quantity is assumed to be characteristic of the pulp and independent of the container.

Jan 6, 1959

By D. R. Miller

Internal friction and elastic modulus variations in electrorefined titanium, iodide refined titanium, and alloys of the latter material with oxygen, nitrogen, aluminum, and zirconium were investigated. No oxygen peak was detected with electrorefined titanium but, provided precautions were taken to prevent increases in background damping, an oxygen peak at about 410°C could be resolved with each of the other materials. An additional partially resolved peak was observed at 500°C in a Ti-N alloy. An anomaly in the variation of rigidity modulus with temperature was observed. Possible mechanisms for the formation of any oxygen peak have been discussed. PRATT, Bratina, and Chalmersl investigated the internal friction of commercial purity titanium and alloys of this material containing 1.5, 3.5, and 4.5 at. pct O. With commercial titanium the internal friction curve consisted of two components, a background which increased steadily with temperature and a peak at about 600" C which was due to grain boundary relaxation. In the Ti-O alloys, however, an additional internal friction peak was observed at 430" to 450°C and, since this peak increased in height as the oxygen content was increased, it was thought to be associated with the presence of oxygen. The diffusion of oxygen in titanium at temperatures between 300" and 500° C is believed to have marked effects in its tensile properties2&apos;3 and the present internal friction measurements were undertaken to obtain further information on this diffusion, using material of higher purity than that of Pratt et d. and an apparatus of very much greater sensitivity. In the course of the investigation a number of important limitations on the work of Pratt et al. were revealed and results have been obtained which emphasize the need for ensuring that in this type of experiment, internal friction is independent of strain amplitude and that the values obtained are reproducible. 1) MATERIALS AND APPARATUS The basis material from which the majority of the specimens was prepared was iodide-refined titanium, the major impurities in which were oxygen and nitrogen—the metallic impurities being present at concentrations less than 0.001 at. pct. The hardness of this material after arc melting, forging, and swaging to rods 1/4 in. diameter was Dph = 110. Specimens 10 in. long and 0.020 in. (0.51 mm) diameter were prepared from these rods by further swaging and wire drawing and were finally annealed in vacuo (5 x 10-6 mmHg) for 24 hr at 800°C. The oxygen alloys were prepared from iodide-

Jan 1, 1962

By P. S. Kotval

THE nominal composition of "hconel" alloy 718 is 53 pct Ni-19 pct Cr-19 pct Fe-3 pct Mo-5 pct Cb-0.8 pct Ti-0.6 pct A1-0.05 pct C. The nature of the fine strengthening phase in this alloy has been open to debate. iseelstein&apos; has identified the strengthening phase in the matrix of "Inconel" alloy 718 as a colum-bium-rich fcc y&apos; precipitate. Wagner and Hall2 have noted that the metastable y&apos; precipitate overages to an orthorhombic Ni3Cb precipitate which manifests itself as an acicular phase. These authors thus clarify Kaufman and Palty&apos;s earlier suggestion3 that the strengthening phase is orthorhombic NisCb. Wagner and Hall&apos;s review also reports work by cometto4 which suggests that the fine strengthening phase is not fcc / but bct with a Ni3V type structure and based on the Ni3Cb composition. Kir man and warringtons have shown by analysis of electron diffraction patterns that the metastable strengthening phase in a 55 pct Ni-15 pct 0-25 pct Fe-5 pct Cb alloy is bct and based on the Ni3Cb composition. Raymond~ has provided electron diffraction evidence which indicates that "y&apos;" in "Inconel" alloy 718 is bct in structure. This note presents unambiguous data on the structure of the strengthening phase in "Inconel" alloy 718* ihe samples of this alloy were provided by courtesy of the ASTM task group on phase identification in &apos;superalloys. after prolonged aging. The electron diffraction patterns presented show that strengthening phase is not y&apos; but bct as was proposed by cometto,&apos; supported by Raymond,~ and identified by Kirman and warringtons in a similar system. Fig. 1 shows a selected-area diffraction pattern taken from a thin foil of "Inconel" alloy 718. The sample had received a final aging treatment of 1118 hr at 1200°F to precipitate the strengthening phase in the matrix. Fig. 2 is a schematic representation of the features in the diffraction pattern. The matrix orientation is (0i2)~,, as is shown by the indexed zone in Fig. 3. Figs. 4, 5, and 6 illustrate that the pattern, Fig. 1, is composed of three bct zones, viz., (0i4), (2i0), and (i01), respectively. These three zones correspond, respectively, to the alignment of the c axis of the bct unit cell with the [001], [loo], and [OlO] directions of the fcc matrix and serve to illustrate the fully coherent relationship of the precipitate structure with the matrix. The streaking of certain reflections is also consistent with the above orientation relationship. The interpretation of the diffraction effects presented here shows the metastable strengthening precipitate in "Inconel" 718 alloy to be bct in structure and demonstrates that it is not an ordered fcc y&apos; phase.

Jan 1, 1969

By Lester Guttman

THE connection between short-range order and thermodynamic activities in binary solid solutions has been pointed out by Birchenall1 who calculated approximate values of the energy of interaction of Zn and Cu and of the degree of short-range order in alpha-brass at one composition and two temperatures. The purpose of this note is to call attention to a somewhat more accurate theory than that used by Birchenall and to extend the calculations to a wider range of temperatures and compositions as a means of testing its applicability. This is an example of the well-known general method of comparing measured thermo-dynamic functions of a system with those calculated from a microscopic model by means of statistical mechanics. In this case, mathematical approximations must be used which make difficult any decision about the validity of the model. Birchenall&apos;s statistical method resembles closely that called by Fowler and Guggenheim2 the "quasi-chemical" method which has been shown to lead in certain cases to results identical with those obtained by the method of Bethe.3 The quasi-chemical method has been extended by Takagi4 to give general formulae for the free energy of binary solid solutions based on several lattices at all compositions and temperatures. Specifically, he treats the four systems typified by: I. ß-brass; 2. a- brass; 3. AuCu3; 4. AuCu. When the temperature is so high that no long-range order exists, these formulae reduce to the same form for all lattice types, namely: [ ] Here the symbols have the following meanings: [F-Helmholtz free energy E-energy S-entropy k-the gas constant per molecule z-coordination number, (e.g. 12 in. a-brass). N-total number of atoms c-atomic fraction of A] VAA, VBB, VAB-energy per bond of the corresponding bonds log means log, throughout The superscript 0 denotes the thermo- dynamic function in the standard state, which has been chosen to be pure A or B with the same crystal structure as the solid solution. The quantity x is the ratio of the number of A-A bonds to the total number and for minimum F satisfies the equilibrium condition [ ] The free energy may also be written in terms of µA and µB, the chemical potentials or partial free energies per atom:

Jan 1, 1948

By L. D. Lamont, W. C. Muehlhof

Throughout the anthracite industry&apos;s history, the problem of handling and disposing of refuse material has been one of major importance. In the early days of the industry&apos;s activities, only the large sizes of anthracite were satisfactory for market requirements and the smaller sizes were deposited as refuse. As time went by, more efficient coal-burning equipment was developed and a market demand was created for the finer sizes of coal. This demand made it possible to recover marketable coal from banks deposited as refuse in the earlier days of mining. The same condition holds good today and we can see a definite trend toward the objective of utilizing the No. 4 and No. 5 buckwheat sizes. Under present conditions, we know that a limited market exists for No. 4 and 5 buckwheat; we know that the finer sizes of anthracite can be burned as pulverized fuel; we know that these fine sizes can be processed and sold as briquettes, and we also know that the heat content of these fine sizes of coal is comparable with that of the sizes now merchandized. Therefore, it should be the objective of the industry to conserve these fine sizes of coal in such manner that if and when processing facilities are developed, and market demands exist, the material can be salvaged and made available to meet these demands. From the standpoint of economical future reclamation, the ideal method of disposing of refuse containing the finer sizes of coal is to deposit it in banks separate and apart from other breaker refuse. By this procedure, the minimum amount of material will be processed in future salvage operations to recover the No. 4 and No. 5 buckwheat sizes. Many collieries in the anthracite region are operated under leases that have a specific term. These lease agreements provide that, upon expiration of the lease by term, exhaustion or otherwise, the ownership of the refuse material reverts to the lessor. Therefore, a question was raised in the minds of these operators: Why should I assume the expense of such procedure when I have no assurance that I will benefit by the future processing and sale of these fine sizes? Under present conditions, the answer to this question is not one of choice but of necessity, as restrictions imposed by legislation make it mandatory on operators of preparation plants to take necessary steps to properly treat silt-laden waters before permitting them to enter the streams. By reason of these restrictions, the disposal of fine sizes becomes a secondary rather than a primary operating consideration, and the procedure for disposing of this refuse becomes a matter of choice governed principally by topographical and geographical conditions. Methods of Handling Refuse There are three principal methods of handling and disposing of fine-size refuse; namely:

Jan 1, 1947

By W. C. Muehlhof, L. D. Lamont

Throughout the anthracite industry&apos;s history, the problem of handling and disposing of refuse material has been one of major importance. In the early days of the industry&apos;s activities, only the large sizes of anthracite were satisfactory for market requirements and the smaller sizes were deposited as refuse. As time went by, more efficient coal-burning equipment was developed and a market demand was created for the finer sizes of coal. This demand made it possible to recover marketable coal from banks deposited as refuse in the earlier days of mining. The same condition holds good today and we can see a definite trend toward the objective of utilizing the No. 4 and No. 5 buckwheat sizes. Under present conditions, we know that a limited market exists for No. 4 and 5 buckwheat; we know that the finer sizes of anthracite can be burned as pulverized fuel; we know that these fine sizes can be processed and sold as briquettes, and we also know that the heat content of these fine sizes of coal is comparable with that of the sizes now merchandized. Therefore, it should be the objective of the industry to conserve these fine sizes of coal in such manner that if and when processing facilities are developed, and market demands exist, the material can be salvaged and made available to meet these demands. From the standpoint of economical future reclamation, the ideal method of disposing of refuse containing the finer sizes of coal is to deposit it in banks separate and apart from other breaker refuse. By this procedure, the minimum amount of material will be processed in future salvage operations to recover the No. 4 and No. 5 buckwheat sizes. Many collieries in the anthracite region are operated under leases that have a specific term. These lease agreements provide that, upon expiration of the lease by term, exhaustion or otherwise, the ownership of the refuse material reverts to the lessor. Therefore, a question was raised in the minds of these operators: Why should I assume the expense of such procedure when I have no assurance that I will benefit by the future processing and sale of these fine sizes? Under present conditions, the answer to this question is not one of choice but of necessity, as restrictions imposed by legislation make it mandatory on operators of preparation plants to take necessary steps to properly treat silt-laden waters before permitting them to enter the streams. By reason of these restrictions, the disposal of fine sizes becomes a secondary rather than a primary operating consideration, and the procedure for disposing of this refuse becomes a matter of choice governed principally by topographical and geographical conditions. Methods of Handling Refuse There are three principal methods of handling and disposing of fine-size refuse; namely:

Jan 1, 1947

By F. F. Lines

It is not the intention of the writer to enter into a discussion of the relative merits of the duplex process as compared with the straight scrap and pig iron process, working under the same conditions, but rather to present in a general way several modifications of the former process, and then describe the method adopted by the Maryland Steel Co., as best suited to local conditions, and also to meet the metallurgical problem presented in the removal from the iron of an unusual constituent— chromium. The principal factors to be considered in. deciding whether or not duplexing should be employed are: (1) Chemical constituents of pig iron. (2) Variety and quantity of steel to be produced. (3) Relative cost of pig iron and scrap. (4) Regularity of operation. (5) Capital to be invested. (6) An existing Bessemer plant. Having decided to adopt the duplex process, several combinations may be used, viz.: (1) Acid-lined converter with basic open hearth. (2) Acid-lined converter with electric furnace. (3) Basic-lined converter with basic open hearth. (4) Basic-lined converter with electric furnace. (5) Basic open hearth with electric furnace. The combination of an acid-lined converter with a basic open-hearth furnace is the one most commonly employed, and as it is the one best adapted to the conditions encountered at the plant of the Maryland Steel Co., we will briefly outline the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods of working. There are two general methods of blowing, as follows: (1) The charge is desiliconized and partly decarbonized in the converter. On account of the difficulty in regulating the percentage of car-

Jan 1, 1916

By H. R. Hanley

IT is a well-known fact that the solubility of zinc compounds decreases when these compounds are roasted in contact with iron compounds, but descriptions of tests to quantitatively express the fact have not appeared in the literature. Possibly such an expression cannot be uniformly and exactly duplicated by different operators because of the variation in the personal equation. In a general way, however, the reactions between zinc compounds and iron compounds under roasting conditions will show a certain trend with changing conditions and the approximate quantitative expression of this trend appears reasonably well established by experimental work conducted for this purpose. Ferrites and Marmatites The name "ferrite" has been given to the compound of zinc and iron which has the formula Zn0.Fe203. Among the questions pertinent to this subject are those involving inherent or natural ferrite, and also the synthetic or artificial variety. The inherent or natural product is formed when the mineral containing iron and zinc sulfides isomorphously crystallized is subjected to oxidation at roasting temperature. These isomorphously crystallized minerals are known, mineralogically, as marmatites, and contain ZnS and FeS in ratios of 2 to 1 up to 5 to 1 respectively. The zinc and iron sulfides form a definite mineral. They are firmly attached to each other and form common contact planes through which diffusion of the entities occurs during the roasting process. This diffusion of the molecularly intimate entities produces, during roasting, the compound referred to as ferrite, in proportion to the amount of iron originally present in the marmatite. For example, a marmatite from British Columbia containing 9.739 per cent. Fe and 56.87 per cent. Zn corresponds with the mineral having the formula 5ZnS.FeS. The ferrite produced in roasting, which has the formula ZnO.Fe203, contains 27.07 per cent. Zn and 46.40

Jan 1, 1929

By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in Oklahoma fields declined in 1938 from the banner year of 1937. During the year, 1768 wells were completed as compared to 2632 completed during the year 1937. The following tabulation sets out details regarding the wells completed during the year: These computations do not take into account the wells drilled for repres-sure and salt-water disposal, and other nonexploratory wells. Purchasers&apos; reports filed with the Corporation Commission of the State of Oklahoma show a total of 168,789,229 bbl. of oil purchased from Oklahoma leases in 1938, or a daily average of 462,436, a decrease of about 25 per cent from the year 1937. The outstanding operation of the year was the further development of the Ramsey pool, in western Payne County, the producing horizon being classified as the Wilcox. This pool was discovered on the last day in the year 1937, by the Mid-Continent Petroleum Corporation drilling on a unitized block in see. 18, T. 18 N., R. 2 E. The map in Fig. 1 shows the development at the end of the year 1938. An important discovery of the year was the Champlin Refining Company&apos;s No. 1 Boehm, in Garfield County, sec. 4-24N-8W., the producing horizon being the second Wilcox found at a depth of approximately 6700 ft. This pool was assigned the name of Hillsdale. Some of the offsets to this discovery well had not come up to expectations at the end of the year, but the discovery seems to be important as indicating that the Wilcox sand is productive in the Anadarko Basin area, providing that the right structural conditions are present.

Jan 1, 1939

By H. E. Rorschach

Activity in Oklahoma fields declined in 1938 from the banner year of 1937. During the year, 1768 wells were completed as compared to 2632 completed during the year 1937. The following tabulation sets out details regarding the wells completed during the year: These computations do not take into account the wells drilled for repres-sure and salt-water disposal, and other nonexploratory wells. Purchasers&apos; reports filed with the Corporation Commission of the State of Oklahoma show a total of 168,789,229 bbl. of oil purchased from Oklahoma leases in 1938, or a daily average of 462,436, a decrease of about 25 per cent from the year 1937. The outstanding operation of the year was the further development of the Ramsey pool, in western Payne County, the producing horizon being classified as the Wilcox. This pool was discovered on the last day in the year 1937, by the Mid-Continent Petroleum Corporation drilling on a unitized block in see. 18, T. 18 N., R. 2 E. The map in Fig. 1 shows the development at the end of the year 1938. An important discovery of the year was the Champlin Refining Company&apos;s No. 1 Boehm, in Garfield County, sec. 4-24N-8W., the producing horizon being the second Wilcox found at a depth of approximately 6700 ft. This pool was assigned the name of Hillsdale. Some of the offsets to this discovery well had not come up to expectations at the end of the year, but the discovery seems to be important as indicating that the Wilcox sand is productive in the Anadarko Basin area, providing that the right structural conditions are present.

Jan 1, 1939

By P. de Vitry, Oliver Bowles

THE conventional wire saw, introduced in the slate district of Pennsylvania by the Bureau of Mines in 1927, and used thereafter with remarkable success, consists of a three-strand steel cable having a diameter of 3/16 or 1/4 in. The equipment, methods used, and accomplishments have been described in previous reports.1-7 Similar wire saws have been used extensively in Europe, in quarries and in shaping blocks and slabs. During the period 1932-1937, competition in European marble quarries was keen, prices were declining, and orders were not abundant. When orders were received, there was generally an urgent call for speedy delivery. Because of the diversification of demands, it was impossible to maintain in stock marbles of the color, size, and thickness called for, therefore the material generally had to be fabricated after the order was received. The wire saw enabled stone mills to fill such orders promptly. With skillful handling, 7/8-in. slabs could be cut accurately and rapidly with this equipment. It was found, however, that, as the three-strand wire became worn, the cutting speed dropped rapidly and the cut became less accurate. To overcome these difficulties the junior author of this paper, after much experimentation, developed a new type of wire consisting of a single ribbon-shaped strand, twisted as shown in Fig. 1. To ensure straight sawing, the twist of the ribbon is reversed from right to left and vice versa every 25 ft. The reversal of the [ ] twist is shown in Fig. 2. This is not a new feature; it has been used to advantage with the three-strand wire both in Europe and America for several years. However, some difficulties arise in splicing the three-strand reverse-twist wire, and the claim is made that cutting is less accurate as the wire becomes worn. To make an endless belt, the ends of the single-strand wire are brazed together with

Jan 1, 1941

By P. B. Leavenworth

Twenty-six fields were found in the Texas Gulf Coast in 1940 as compared to 17 fields in 1939. Of these, 14 were oil fields and 12 were gas and distillate. About 150 wells were drilling at the end of the year. Production for the year 1940 amounted to 104,127,247 bbl. as compared to 100,-253,937 bbl. for 1939. Considerable wildcatting for Wilcox production featured the exploration, but discoveries were few and the type of fields found mainly gas and distillate. On the whole, the program was discouraging. New Fields Alta Lomu. Galveston County.—The Alta Loma field was discovered on May 20, 1940, by the Stanolind Oil and Gas Company&apos;s No. I John A. Hulen, which blew out at a depth of 9166 it. and ran wild for several days, with an estimated production of 400 bbl. per hour of 36" gravity oil from a sand in the top of the Frio. Water soon appeared but the well produced more than I3o,ooo bbl. of oil between May 20 and June 10, together with a large amount of salt water. Later the well was killed and recompleted on Nov. 23, for 276 bbl. of 34" gravity oil per day. Probably this was the most sensational discovery of the year, although development to the end of the year was disappointing. The discovery was the result of reflection seismograph work of the Stano-End Oil and Gas Co., the principal leaseholders. Bailey&apos;s Prairie, Brazoria County.— Glenn H. McCarthy9s No. I W. B. Munson was completed in a lower Frio sand from perforations 11,345 to II,349 ft. for 8 bbl. of fluid (50 per cent black oil, 27" gravity, and 50 per cent B. S. and W.) on Sept. 24, 1940. It was finally recompleted as a gas well from perforations 11,631 to 11,651 ft., on Oct. 9, 1940. The well had been drilled to a total depth of 11,860 ft. This well produced for only a short time and the area is at present inactive. Blessing, Matagorda County.—The Texas Company&apos;s No. I A. B. Pierce was completed from a Frio sand from 8265 to 8300 ft. on July 8, 1940, for an initial production of 29 bbl. of distillate, I 1/2 million cu. ft. of gas. One other gas and distillate well was completed in 1940. Borden, Wharlon County.—J. F. Hutch-ins&apos; No. 2 A. P. Borden Estate was completed on Feb. 11, 1940, for 108 bbl. of 35,6° gravity oil, from a Frio sand at 4758 to 4771 ft. This is the second well drilled in the area by Hutchins. Two other wells in 1940 were failures and there was no activity at the end of the year. Dyersdale, Harris County.-The Dyers-dale field was opened by the completion, on Sept. 15, 1940, of H. C. Cockburn&apos;s No. I G. Burkitt from a sand in the top of the Frio, through perforations from 4067-4072 ft., for 240 bbl. of low-gravity oil. By the end of the year the field had been fairly well outlined and did not appear to be a major discovery. Duck Bay, Calhoun County.—Coronado Oil Company&apos;s No. I Welder, alter having drilled to 10,002 ft., perforated casing from 5654 1/2 to 5659 it. and was completed for 60 bbl. of 36.8° gravity oil On July 27, 1940, from a Miocene sand.

Jan 1, 1941

By P. B. Leavenworth

Twenty-six fields were found in the Texas Gulf Coast in 1940 as compared to 17 fields in 1939. Of these, 14 were oil fields and 12 were gas and distillate. About 150 wells were drilling at the end of the year. Production for the year 1940 amounted to 104,127,247 bbl. as compared to 100,-253,937 bbl. for 1939. Considerable wildcatting for Wilcox production featured the exploration, but discoveries were few and the type of fields found mainly gas and distillate. On the whole, the program was discouraging. New Fields Alta Lomu. Galveston County.—The Alta Loma field was discovered on May 20, 1940, by the Stanolind Oil and Gas Company&apos;s No. I John A. Hulen, which blew out at a depth of 9166 it. and ran wild for several days, with an estimated production of 400 bbl. per hour of 36" gravity oil from a sand in the top of the Frio. Water soon appeared but the well produced more than I3o,ooo bbl. of oil between May 20 and June 10, together with a large amount of salt water. Later the well was killed and recompleted on Nov. 23, for 276 bbl. of 34" gravity oil per day. Probably this was the most sensational discovery of the year, although development to the end of the year was disappointing. The discovery was the result of reflection seismograph work of the Stano-End Oil and Gas Co., the principal leaseholders. Bailey&apos;s Prairie, Brazoria County.— Glenn H. McCarthy9s No. I W. B. Munson was completed in a lower Frio sand from perforations 11,345 to II,349 ft. for 8 bbl. of fluid (50 per cent black oil, 27" gravity, and 50 per cent B. S. and W.) on Sept. 24, 1940. It was finally recompleted as a gas well from perforations 11,631 to 11,651 ft., on Oct. 9, 1940. The well had been drilled to a total depth of 11,860 ft. This well produced for only a short time and the area is at present inactive. Blessing, Matagorda County.—The Texas Company&apos;s No. I A. B. Pierce was completed from a Frio sand from 8265 to 8300 ft. on July 8, 1940, for an initial production of 29 bbl. of distillate, I 1/2 million cu. ft. of gas. One other gas and distillate well was completed in 1940. Borden, Wharlon County.—J. F. Hutch-ins&apos; No. 2 A. P. Borden Estate was completed on Feb. 11, 1940, for 108 bbl. of 35,6° gravity oil, from a Frio sand at 4758 to 4771 ft. This is the second well drilled in the area by Hutchins. Two other wells in 1940 were failures and there was no activity at the end of the year. Dyersdale, Harris County.-The Dyers-dale field was opened by the completion, on Sept. 15, 1940, of H. C. Cockburn&apos;s No. I G. Burkitt from a sand in the top of the Frio, through perforations from 4067-4072 ft., for 240 bbl. of low-gravity oil. By the end of the year the field had been fairly well outlined and did not appear to be a major discovery. Duck Bay, Calhoun County.—Coronado Oil Company&apos;s No. I Welder, alter having drilled to 10,002 ft., perforated casing from 5654 1/2 to 5659 it. and was completed for 60 bbl. of 36.8° gravity oil On July 27, 1940, from a Miocene sand.

Jan 1, 1941