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By Frank C. Roberts

Neglecting the hydrogen and hydrocarbons, 1 will assume the following analysis as a fair average composition, by weight, of the waste gases escaping from a coke-burning blast-furnace: CO2............17.25 CO,............25.25 N,.............57.50 100.00 The 25.25 CO requires for combustion 62.6 of air, or 11.398 of oxygen, necessitating the passage of 48.202 nitrogen into the products of combustion. The latter, therefore, have the following composition: CO2,,............ 56.9 N,............105.7 Tile total specific heats of these quantities of the respective gases are 12.31 and 25.79, giving for the combined product, 38.1 approximately. That is, the product of combustion will absorb 38.1

Jan 1, 1889

By G. A. Swanquist, E. M. Morales

INTRODUCTION The idea of water management and control at the Church Rock Mill operations began to take shape in February 1979. At that time, we were already investigating the feasibility of decreasing the fresh water requirements so that the solids would become the limiting factor in tailings impoundment utilization. The area for solution evaporation could be kept at a fraction of the normal requirements under the standard process of full water usage. The Church Rock Mill is an acid leach circuit followed by solids/liquid separation with thickeners in counter current decantation, and solvent extraction. Following the normal design of acid leach circuits, reuse of tailings solution was not incorporated in the original mill process design. INITIAL WATER CONTROL INVESTIGATIONS The investigations to decrease the fresh water requirements centered around modifying the grinding circuit from the present semi-autogenous grinding (SAG) mill in closed circuit with hydrocyclones, to open circuit grinding with a rod mill. The open circuit grinding with the SAG mill and rod mill in series had the potential of decreasing the water requirements for grinding and leach dilution by approximately 50% or 1.4 m3/min (300 gpm). The grinding pulp density would be maintained at 70 to 72% solids, and the leach dilution to 50% solids would be accomplished with acid tailings liquor recycle. In such a grinding circuit arrangement, the SAG mill would provide the primary or coarse grind, and the rod mill would be used for the fine grind. By the SAG mill and rod mill series grinding method of water control and other secondary water controls in various places downstream from the grinding circuit, the required necessary evaporation area was estimated at 120 acres of liquid surface. A second method of water control at grinding was investigated. A two-stage cyclone classification circuit appeared to have a good potential of achieving the same water reduction at a much lower capital and operating cost. However, in retrospect, this would not have been a viable method since a high slime recycle load would have been established hindering classification. The use of reagents to neutralize the acid tailings solution was not considered seriously at that time, since it would have materially increased operating costs, although it would have also allowed more tailings solution recycle and consequently, less fresh water usage. However, with the tailings solution deposition area available at that time, it was not then necessary to incur the high cost of neutralization. The control expected by the series grinding of semiautogenous and rod mills would have been sufficient to maintain a water consumption/evaporation equilibrium well in line with the available land area. IMPLEMENTATION OF NEUTRALIZATION OPERATIONS During the summer of 1979, the UNC Church Rock Mill experienced a tailings dam breach which resulted in a prolonged mill shutdown. Upon resumption of operations at the end of October 1979, tailings deposition was restricted to a small portion of the tailings impoundment area. Figure 1 shows the general tailings area and the limits of the present deposition area in the central part including the borrow pits. These borrow pits had been excavated to provide materials for tailings dam construction. Immediately after resumption of operations, it became evident that it would be necessary to control the quantity of liquid to be evaporated because of the small confined area available for tailings solution deposition and to maximize the deposition time in the tailings area. The water control required had to be exercised on a large scale, and to be in operation as quickly as possible. An obvious solution was to reuse the tailings liquor in mill process. Immediate steps were taken to install the necessary equipment for tailings neutralization on an interim basis. Anhydrous ammonia was selected as the primary neutralization reagent since it was the quickest system that could be placed in operation. Previous laboratory tests indicated fair results with ammonia neutralization. Such a system required a minimum of installed equipment and handling. INITIAL NEUTRALIZATION OPERATIONS Actual neutralization operations began on November 26, 1979. The raffinate solution which normally would have been discarded was pumped to a 3.7 m (12ft) diam by 4.3 m (14ft) tank for reagent contact, see Figure 2. At this tank, anhydrous ammonia was added directly from the tanker trailers and controlled at pH 7.0 nominally. Agitation was provided by air sparging. The neutralized product formed a highly viscous slurry in the grinding circuit which resulted in pumping and cyclone classification problems.

Jan 1, 1982

By S. H. Williston

IT not often that bore hole surveys can be checked by actual. civil engineering methods. A recent Arizona survey was checked by normal surveying methods and the comparison of the results should be of value to both oil and mining men. During the summer of 1948 the Phelps-Dodge Corporation, at its Copper Queen property near Bis-bee, Ariz., drilled a 1245 ft, 8 in. diarn, churn drillhole in a mineralized area and cased part of it, intending to use it to transfer mill tailings for stope fill. The hole, as frequently occurs, was not straight, and, in endeavoring to locate the bottom in the underground workings, they found no evidence of the hole at the underground coordinates directly below the surface location. The noise of the drilling tools was reasonably clear, but the direction of sound was uncertain. Preliminary tests with available equipment were not successful in locating the bottom of the hole. Because of the mineralized character of the area and the fact there was some casing in the hole, any magnetic method of well surveying would give results of doubtful value. Sperry-Sun gyroscopic well-surveying instruments were finally used to locate the bottom of the hole. These instruments consist of a gyroscope to determine azimuth and either a pendulum or bubble inclino-meter. A multiple shot camera photographs both instruments on a single film and superimposes the photograph of a watch. Coordination of depth with time at the surface makes it possible to select the corresponding picture for any depth. After making several runs of the empty instrument housing from the top of the hole to the bottom to make sure there were no obstructions in the hole, three surveys on wire line were completed during the afternoon. The three surveys, in which readings were taken at different points in the hole on each survey, were computed and gave the following locations of the bottom of the hole in relation to the surface collar: survey No. 1—24.92 N, 30.30 W; survey No. 2—24.24 N, 31.11 W; survey No. 3—26.54 N, 27.72 W. Then the data from the three surveys were combined into a single set of calculations which gave a location for the bottom of the hole: combined surveys—24.27 N, 30.16 W. (Fig. 1.) Immediately upon the determination of the coordinates at the bottom of the hole, a drift on the 1300 ft level was started toward the indicated loca- tion some 38 ft northwest of the coordinates of the surface location, The bottom of the hole was located within the drift round in which it was expected, and the transit survey run to the actual location of the hole indicated N 27.18, W 29.71. This shows a discrepancy between the well survey and the transit survey of 0.45 ft in the westerly direction and 2.91 ft in the northerly direction. All surveys, both gyroscopic and transit, fell well within the width of an ordinary drift. While this is satisfactory for almost any and all mining requirements, a theoretical examination was made as to reasons for the discrepancy. A study of the course of the hole indicates that considerable right turn or spiral existed, and in all probability the surveying instrument was pulled out of alignment while traversing the turn by approximately 0.05 ft at the top and another 0.05 ft in the opposite direction at the bottom of the instrument. If such an allowance were to be made, the survey calculations would almost exactly correspond with those determined by transit. This sort of discrepancy would be minimized by the use of stabilizing guides. It is unfortunate that physical laws probably effectively prevent the use of gyroscopic instruments in EX and AX diamond drill holes. The directive power of a gyroscope falls off inversely at some rate between the third power and the sixth power of the diameter. Present instruments can be run in casing 53/4 in. ID or over and might be adapted to somewhat smaller diameters, but the difficulty of reducing these diameters to 11/4 in. or 2 in. is almost insurmountable at the present time. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Phelps-Dodge Corporation for permission to publish this article, and to the Operating and Engineering Departments for their cooperation on the survey; also to Donald Hering, of the Sperry-Sun Well Surveying Co., who actually made the survey and calculated the results.

Jan 1, 1951

By S. H. Williston

IT not often that bore hole surveys can be checked by actual. civil engineering methods. A recent Arizona survey was checked by normal surveying methods and the comparison of the results should be of value to both oil and mining men. During the summer of 1948 the Phelps-Dodge Corporation, at its Copper Queen property near Bis-bee, Ariz., drilled a 1245 ft, 8 in. diarn, churn drillhole in a mineralized area and cased part of it, intending to use it to transfer mill tailings for stope fill. The hole, as frequently occurs, was not straight, and, in endeavoring to locate the bottom in the underground workings, they found no evidence of the hole at the underground coordinates directly below the surface location. The noise of the drilling tools was reasonably clear, but the direction of sound was uncertain. Preliminary tests with available equipment were not successful in locating the bottom of the hole. Because of the mineralized character of the area and the fact there was some casing in the hole, any magnetic method of well surveying would give results of doubtful value. Sperry-Sun gyroscopic well-surveying instruments were finally used to locate the bottom of the hole. These instruments consist of a gyroscope to determine azimuth and either a pendulum or bubble inclino-meter. A multiple shot camera photographs both instruments on a single film and superimposes the photograph of a watch. Coordination of depth with time at the surface makes it possible to select the corresponding picture for any depth. After making several runs of the empty instrument housing from the top of the hole to the bottom to make sure there were no obstructions in the hole, three surveys on wire line were completed during the afternoon. The three surveys, in which readings were taken at different points in the hole on each survey, were computed and gave the following locations of the bottom of the hole in relation to the surface collar: survey No. 1—24.92 N, 30.30 W; survey No. 2—24.24 N, 31.11 W; survey No. 3—26.54 N, 27.72 W. Then the data from the three surveys were combined into a single set of calculations which gave a location for the bottom of the hole: combined surveys—24.27 N, 30.16 W. (Fig. 1.) Immediately upon the determination of the coordinates at the bottom of the hole, a drift on the 1300 ft level was started toward the indicated loca- tion some 38 ft northwest of the coordinates of the surface location, The bottom of the hole was located within the drift round in which it was expected, and the transit survey run to the actual location of the hole indicated N 27.18, W 29.71. This shows a discrepancy between the well survey and the transit survey of 0.45 ft in the westerly direction and 2.91 ft in the northerly direction. All surveys, both gyroscopic and transit, fell well within the width of an ordinary drift. While this is satisfactory for almost any and all mining requirements, a theoretical examination was made as to reasons for the discrepancy. A study of the course of the hole indicates that considerable right turn or spiral existed, and in all probability the surveying instrument was pulled out of alignment while traversing the turn by approximately 0.05 ft at the top and another 0.05 ft in the opposite direction at the bottom of the instrument. If such an allowance were to be made, the survey calculations would almost exactly correspond with those determined by transit. This sort of discrepancy would be minimized by the use of stabilizing guides. It is unfortunate that physical laws probably effectively prevent the use of gyroscopic instruments in EX and AX diamond drill holes. The directive power of a gyroscope falls off inversely at some rate between the third power and the sixth power of the diameter. Present instruments can be run in casing 53/4 in. ID or over and might be adapted to somewhat smaller diameters, but the difficulty of reducing these diameters to 11/4 in. or 2 in. is almost insurmountable at the present time. Acknowledgment The author wishes to express his appreciation to the Phelps-Dodge Corporation for permission to publish this article, and to the Operating and Engineering Departments for their cooperation on the survey; also to Donald Hering, of the Sperry-Sun Well Surveying Co., who actually made the survey and calculated the results.

Jan 1, 1951

By John B. Hastings

TEN miles from Hartsel, near Antelope springs, in Park county, Colorado, there is a large area of unconsolidated lake beds, which are interesting because at least a part of the lacustrine sands contains in the aggregate an immense amount of gold. During 1906, one of the arms of this dessicated lake was fairly well prospected with shafts and cuts by an Eastern company to test its value, as favorable amounts of gold had in some instances been found upon it. The claims of the company contain about 5,000 acres of the beds; but this is only a small portion of them, a south branch from a main body, which is at least 7 miles in diameter, with other and very wide lateral gulches, paralleling the one herein described on the east and west. A certain amount of digging and sampling was done in the outside areas; but the result was evidently unsatisfactory, since the work was discontinued. his section of Colorado has not been studied geologically, and the age of the ancient lake is unknown. It is probably Quaternary. I spent two weeks on the ground, in September and October, 1906, but was quite absorbed in the sampling. I looked, however, for terraces on the rim-rock and other evidences of movement and erosion, but did not find anything to denote an earlier age than the Quaternary. The granite rim-rock may be Archean; S. F. Emmons says that some of the granites in central Colorado are as old as that. The rim-rock as observed is a gray quartzose biotite-granite, except a small area in Sections 3 and 34, where it is a felsitic (?) breccia. The breccia is silicified by solfataric action at the corner near Shaft No. 7, in Section 34; but this action is older than the sands and does not extend to them. The shaft averaged 50c. per ton, more than twice as much as the rest.

Jan 5, 1908

By W. J. Schuster

Safety in coal mines depends largely upon adequate training of the foreman. Although management must provide modern and safe equipment and at all times keep mines in first class condition from a safety viewpoint, final results will be determined by the quality of supervision. HANNA COAL CO., Division of Pittsburgh Consolidation Coal Co., operates three large underground mines in eastern Ohio. The section of Pittsburgh No. 8 coal seam in which these mines are located varies in thickness from 52 to 64 in. It is immediately overlain by a stratum of shaly material 12 to 15 in. thick locally known as draw slate, which is structurally very weak and which disintegrates rapidly upon exposure to atmosphere. Immediately above the draw slate as it is normally found is a band of extremely high ash material 6 to 12 in. thick known as roof coal or rooster coal, and above this is a stratum of conglomerate material varying from 4 to 10 ft in depth. Overlying the conglomerate is a relatively thick stratum of limestone, the first stable material above the Pittsburgh coal seam in eastern Ohio. With the method of full-seam mining that has been adopted, draw slate is shot down, loaded with the coal, and removed in the preparation plants. The roof coal then becomes the permanent roof. The major problem in mining the No. 8 seam in eastern Ohio is control of the roof. Since the strata above the draw slate contains no material with a structure firm enough to provide self-support, the roof begins to sag in a relatively short time after the coal and draw slate have been removed. The problem thus becomes one of getting temporary safety posts under this roof as quickly as possible to prevent a break or separation from occurring either in the roof coal or in the conglomerate above it. Haulage System The Pittsburgh No. 8 seam in eastern Ohio is relatively level, with only minor local dips. Throughout the Hanna Coal Co. mines, entries are generally 12 ft wide. Rooms are driven on a 60" angle on 30-ft centers and are 22 ft wide. No attempt is made to extract the 8-ft pillars between. The entire length of main line haulage is gunited in one mine, and a major portion in another. Two of the mines have single-track main haulage roads with passways. The third, a new mine, is double-tracked, and the roof is supported by steel crossbars, 60 lb or heavier, spaced on 4-ft centers and lagged. In recent years timbering on main line and secondary haulage roads has been accomplished by one of two methods: 1—crossbars are supported on a small section of post set in a hitch hole in the rib, or 2—or a hole is drilled in the rib about 12 in. below the roof, of sufficient depth to fasten securely a short length of 40-lb rail, the bottom of the rail facing the roof, on which a short post is set directly under the crossbar. At present the hitch-hole timbering method is favored. At two of the mines the main line haulage locomotives are 26-ton, 8-wheel units. These locomotives are of the axleless type, each wheel being individually mounted on the frame. The motorman's compartment is encircled by 3-in. armor plate for the protection of the occupants. At the third underground mine conventional 15-ton locomotives are being used. However, these locomotives have been completely rebuilt in the company's shops. Equipment has been streamlined and quarters have been provided for two people, who are protected by heavy steel plate in much the same way described above. This modernization program has been completed on all secondary haulage locomotives at the three mines, and the company is well on the way to similar equipment of the 6-ton section locomotives. The following additional features have been included in their modernization: 1—additional support for the motors to prevent their falling to the middle of the track and derailing the locomotives should a break occur in the suspension bar support; 2—installation of additional bracing to prevent brake rigging from becoming displaced and causing derailments; 3—enclosure of all electric wiring in conduit or raceway; 4—provision of an enclosed compartment for the storage of re-railers, jacks, and other equipment, so that they need not be carried on the outside of the motor; and 5—redesign of the end of the locomotive opposite the operator's compartment to prevent anyone's mounting from that direction. It is interesting to note that some

Jan 1, 1955

By H. N. Lawrie

Introduction. THIS study was undertaken on account of the lack of definite knowledge concerning the influence of bismuth on wire-bar copper, and the small elimination of bismuth from copper-matte during the smelting-operations. The early workers who studied the influence of bismuth on copper confined their investigations to malleability and ductility-two physical properties which are related to the others so intimately that their determination is of primary importance. Karsten ' and Levol,2 using bending- and mealleability-tests, seem to have been the first to take up the subject, and while their results are incomplete, they agree in the main with the later work of Hampe.3 The bending-tests used by the first investigators consisted in bending the specimen until it failed. The malleabilitytests were made by beating the material to a knife-edge with a hammer. Hampe not only determined the percentage of bismuth which would cause red-shortness and cold-shortness of the alloy, together with other influences of bismuth on the malleability and ductility of copper, but also took up the influence of the bismuth protoxide, BiO, on copper, and of bismuth sesquioxide, Bi2O3, on the copper protoxide, CuO. Hampe's conclusions of the influences of these two latter compounds of bismuth on copper are as follows "If the protoxide of bismuth be alloyed with metallic copper, it is not changed to metallic bismuth, but remains mechanically distributed throughout the copper.

Sep 1, 1909

E. P. Pfleider, University of Minnesota I would like to ask Bob Merrill whether he considers that horizontal concave curvature of a slope has any stabilizing effect, such as Jenike 1 suggested several years ago. R. H. Merrill, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Denver Federal Center The stabilizing effect is due to the restraint offered to radial movement by the curvature. We found in laboratory tests that if we constrained the rock with the same stresses as those measured in the pit then it would sustain a maximum stress about two or four times greater than when the same rock type was unconstrained. We are therefore definitely of the opinion that a constrained situation in a slope is favorable towards stability. G. A. Leonards, Purdue University I was interested in Mr. Lane's observations concerning the correspondence between rate of slide movement with rise of reservoir. Perhaps the most interesting feature is that the rate of movement at the time the rock slope failed was less than the rate at an earlier time when it did not fail. This is difficult to explain from current slope stability theory. K. S. Lane, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers I believe that reduced rate of movement is the result of the progressive type of failure, such as described by Patton and Deere. which occurs along the sliding surfaces. It is difficult to analytically define the progressive failure condition for inclusion in slope stability conditions, but its existence should be recognized in design. We should also realize that many apparently stable slopes undoubtedly contain overstressed regions. To design a slope with no overstressed region would be uneconomical and conservative. D. H. Deere I would pose the question-"What is the meaning of a factor of safety of one?" We were involved in the design of a large, irregularly shaped, underground cavity with an unsupported span of several hundreds of feet. Tests on rock specimens indicated a strength of 1300 lb per sq in. The RQD would have been between 90 to 100 percent indicating excellent structural continuity. In-situ stress determinations indicated an approximately hydrostatic state of stress at a level of 1400 lb per sq in. Calculation of stress concentrations at the walls indicated that the stresses there would be about 3000 to 4000 lb per sq in. Admittedly the rock is in a confined condition everywhere except at the very skin of the wall and the rock walls would thus on the average be somewhat stronger. Allowing for the effect of restraint the factor of safety was found to be less than 0.5 over a region several feet into the wall. Construction was started, using rockbolts only to support the walls. Failure around the immediate skin occurred after each

Jan 1, 1967

By AIME AIME

THE Western States Joint Convention opened at Denver on Sept. 20, with about 400 registered the first day. Monday was devoted to the American Mining Congress, and the afternoon session was taken up with a discussion of the public land laws of the United States. Hubert Work, Secretary of Interior, and William Spry, Commissioner of the General Land Office, presented a comprehensive review of the origin and operation of the laws and argued against any general change in the system. Charles E. Winter, Congressman from Wyoming, marshalled the arguments in favor of turning over the public lands to the states within which they lie, and George H. Dern, Governor of Utah, presented a well-reasoned argument in favor of allowing the school sections to pass to the states regardless of their mineral or non-mineral character. The debate made it clear that in the West especially, there is strong feeling against any further development of the policy of reserving and leasing the public lands. Tuesday forenoon was devoted to the Silver Producers Association, F. H. Brownell and Charles A. Thomas being the principal speakers, and in the after- noon the American Association of Petroleum Geologists met with Alex. W. McCoy presiding, and Glenn C. Clark, J. V. Howell, and J. W. Beede presenting papers.

Jan 1, 1926

By Roland J. Lapee

A history of the progress made in copper refining in Montana is presented. The casting furnaces and the newly rebuilt electrolytic refinery are descmbed and operating details are given. Experiences with various addition agents, effects of rernoval of chlorine from the electrolyte, and effects of separan on electrolyte and on copper deposit are discussed. Observatzons are made on the effect of various impurities in anode copper and behavior of thezr salts in electrolyte and in slime, on treatment of slime for removal of copper, and on electrolyte puriification problems. The improved method for production of starting sheets is described. Attention is given to new materials for construction and to improvement in matrials handling ad quality control. COPPER refining at Great Falls, Montana, dates back to 1892. The original plant produced 65,000 lb. of cathodes per day at a current density of 16 amp per sq ft. In this plant anodes and cathodes were handled to and from the cells by means of hand-operated chain blocks and were moved about the plant by hand trucks. Cathodes were melted in coal-fired, reverbera-tory furnaces, were charged by hand, and refined copper was dipped by hand and cast in iron molds. In 1916, a new, modern plant with capacity to refine 18 million Ib. copper per month was built. Two refining furnaces were built, and each was provided with a twenty-mold Clark casting wheel. In 1922, the furnaces were converted to the use of pulverized coal: in 1923, to the use of oil; and in 1928, to the use of natural gas. In 1926, the plant was enlarged 50 pct. The use of pulverized coal for refining copper at Great Falls was discussed1 in a paper presented at the Salt Lake City meeting of the Institute in September 1925. Also, a comparison of the use of various fuels in copper refining furnaces was discussed 2 in a paper presented at the New York meeting of the Institute in February 1932. Prior to 1943 the cellroom was operated with twenty-five 720-lb. anodes and 26 cathodes per cell. Four cathodes, each weighing about 165 lb., were produced from an anode. In 1943 the weight of the anode was reduced to 460 lb., and two cathodes, each weighing about 190 lb., were produced from an anode. In 1949, a Billet Casting Wheel for the production of 3 in. diam phosphor deoxidized billets was built. A paper, presented at the New York Meeting of the Institute in February 1956, describes3 this plant and operation. In the electrolytic refinery, production is controlled by variation of the current density. In 1956, germanium rectifiers on a separate electrical circuit were provided for the starting sheet section so that current density could be maintained at any desired figure. Also in 1956, a program of modernization and enlargement of the Electrolytic Copper Refinery was started. This program, when completed, will raise the capacity of the Great Falls Electrolytic Copper Refinery approximately 33 pct, to 33 million lb. of cathodes per month. Furnace capacity for melting cathodes and anode scrap is ample to take care of the increased production from the electrolytic refinery. This fortunate condition came about primarily as the result of the three following changes: 1) The furnaces were lengthened 10 ft in 1922 when the fireboxes were found unnecessary for burning powdered coal. 2) Furnace life, and hence furnace capacity, was increased by the successful efforts of the Copper Refinery staff to develop a method for sanding furnace side walls and roof. 3) The natural gas being used has a very low sulfur content. As a result, it is possible to reduce time spent rabbling and poling and thus greatly increase tons per furnace charge. TANKHOUSE AND TANKS The Great Falls Electrolytic Refinery is 535 ft long by 252 ft wide. The cells are arranged in four crane bays in which are operated seven 10 ton Whiting Cranes. The old cells are in groups of ten, with circulation of electrolyte through five cells in cascade and with aisles between the groups of ten cells. The new cells are nested in groups of sixteen with no aisles, are all on one level, and have individual circulation to each cell. Present plans call for 1792 commercial cells and 128 stripper cells. To reduce confusion during the construction period, and to use the cranes, cars, and other equipment already on hand, the cells in the rebuilt section were designed to have approximately the same inside dimensions as the cells in the old part of the

Jan 1, 1962

Representatives from 100 countries will focus on aspects of energy, ocean mining, safety, and manpower training at Houston's Astrodomain.

Jan 4, 1978

By J. D. Anthony

The Australian continent possesses significant reserves of a wide range of minerals, including bauxite, coal, copper, diamonds, gold, iron ore, lead, manganese, mineral sands, nickel, phosphate, silver, tin, uranium, and zinc. Australia's identified economic resources of many minerals are very large as indicated in Table 1. A sophisticated and highly experienced mineral industry is now an established feature of the Australian economy and Australia is the world's largest exporter of iron ore, alumina, mineral sands and refined lead and amongst the leading suppliers of many other commodities such as coal, lead and zinc ores/concentrates, nickel, refined zinc, tungsten concentrates and bauxite. The industry exports 70% of its production. This is reflected in the value of Australian mineral exports which have grown from about $200m in 1960/61, comprising 10% of total export receipts, to about $1265m or 29% of export income in 1970/71 to around $7061 representing 37% of Australia's total export income in 1980/81. Details of the more significant minerals are as follows: Japan (42.1%) USA (11.3%) ASEAN (6.3%) UK (5.9%) F.R. Germany (3.8%) Republic of Korea (3.4%) New Zealand (2.6%) Also see Table 2. AUSTRALIA'S MINERAL RESOURCES POLICIES Federal and State Governments' Responsibilities Australia has a federal system of government comprising six States, a self-governing Territory and a Federal Government. Under the Australian federal system the Constitution sets down the powers of the Federal Government. All powers not assigned to the Federal Government in the Australian Constitution reside automatically with the States. Certain of these broad powers result in the Federal Government having a significant influence on resources development. For example, in being responsible for economic management, the Federal Government's fiscal and monetary policies have an important effect on industry as well as on State finances. In particular, the taxation regime employed by the Federal Government is of direct importance to decision-makers in the resources industry. The Federal Government is responsible also under the Constitution for external trade matters; and international trade and commodity matters are increasingly important in Australia's international relationships. Foreign investment is another area where the Federal Government has a role to ensure that national interests are protected. This foreign investment power flows from the Federal Government's control of foreign exchange movements into and out of Australia. However, before enlarging on these and others of the Federal Government's powers and policies, it should be emphasized that the State governments, by virtue of their wide powers to regulate matters within their own boundaries, are more directly involved in the day-to-day administration and regulation of mining operations. For instance, the powers of the State governments include the responsibility-for the granting of exploration rights and mining leases, the approval of mining operations and the levying of royalties and other like charges. Administrative arrangements covering the granting of minerals and petroleum exploration and development titles vary from State to State. Before development rights are granted, State governments consider environment protection and rehabilitation aspects of development proposals. The provision of infrastructure within State borders is a matter primarily of State government responsibility. It is usual practice in Australia for State governments to construct and operate infrastructure services such. as railways, ports and electricity generation and transmission. The States may also provide certain public services such as electricity. and water, port and loading facilities, communications, health and education services which form part of the infrastructure of mining operations. In remote areas the mining companies themselves usually are expected to provide much of this infrastructure. However, the Federal Government is primarily responsible in some fields, such as telecommunications and parts of the railways network. State governments carry out preliminary exploration and geological mapping and some are directly involved in the mining of coal for power generation. The Federal Government's responsibilities in addition to economic management, taxation, international relations, foreign capital and investment, include regulation of exports, environmental matters and matters affecting the Aboriginals of the Northern Territory. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT POLICIES The continued sound development of the minerals and energy resources sector is regarded by the Federal Government as being of very great importance. However, the Government does not seek to participate directly in resource developments. It sees its role rather as that of establishing a sound economic and policy climate in which private companies can identify opportunities, seek out customers and marshall the necessary capital for the development of resource projects.

Jan 1, 1982

F A. THOMSON, president of the Montana School of Mines, gave an interesting talk on mining schools of the past, present and his ideas of the future before a recent meeting of the Montana Section of the A. I. M. E. He covered the history .of the various mining schools and com- pared the three main types of schools; those attached to or forming part of an endowed college or university such, for example, as' the Columbia School of Mines, the Mining Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Mining Department of Stanford University. These resemble in a general way the second class, those attached to the state universities and colleges. The schools of this general type have had varied success.

Jan 1, 1928

(The following -list, contains the navies of those members of the Institute of whose connection with military service we have only recently become acquainted; it also includes the names of a few who have recently been promoted or transferred. A com-plete list was published in the Year Book, issued as a supplement of the Bulletin for March, 1918.) ADDICKS, LAWRENCE, Naval Consulting Board. ALINE, P. A., Camp Lewis. BARCUS, WALTER .J. E., Captain, Ordnance Department. BAUSH, JOHN R., Private, 1st Army Headquarters Regiment, Co. M. BENNETT, A. F., Lieutenant. BILLINGSLEY, PAUL, Engineer Officer, Aviation Section, Signal Officers' Reserve Corps. BOOTH, L. E., Ordnance Department. BROWN, JAMES F., 2d, 1st Lieutenant, Ordnance Reserve Corps, A. E. F.

Jan 4, 1918

By William L. Batt

IT IS becoming increasingly evident to management that it has other obligations than merely to earn dividends for stockholders. The head of one of America's largest organizations has stated it in these words: "There rests upon them a far broader responsibility than the mere production of goods and services, or solely the interests of their stockholders. They must assume the important obligation, through proper policy, of attuning industry to a rapidly changing world, from social as well as economic standpoints." Stockholders might as well reconcile themselves, therefore, to the fact that management cannot always put their interests first in the obligation of business enterprise: and that the legitimate requirements of customers and employees have acquired a new significance which must be recognized if the business of today is to prosper.

Jan 1, 1938

By Ralph Arnold

LESS than eight months ago at the annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers, attention was called to the demoralizing effect of the abnormal oil production of Mexico on the oil situation in the United States, and it was predicted that this unstabilizing influence would probably become impotent in 18 to 24 months through ' the exhaustion of the principal producing fields of Mexico, unless new fields were found in- the meantime. When this statement was made, the daily production of Mexico was about 600,000 bbl. of crude oil; now it is about 350,000 bbl. No new pools of consequence have been opened, although extensions have been made to two old pools. Over 200,000 bbl., or more than half of the present daily production, comes from Los Naranjos, Amatlan and North Zacamixtle fields, in which practically every well is so affected by salt water that the potential production dropped 50 per cent. in the month of September, clearly indicating that these fields are moving rapidly toward extinction. How much longer the one remaining important pool will last is a matter of conjecture.

Jan 1, 1921

By AIME AIME

A SYMPOSIUM on current. conditions in Mexico, particularly in the oil and mining industries, was a most successful feature of the May meeting of the New York Section of the A.I.M.E. Heath Steele, vice-president of The American Metal Co.. Ltd., with an intimate knowledge of Mexico gave the principal address, and asked that his analysis of the present situation he regarded neither as an endorsement of Mexico's policy nor as the criticism of a disgruntled operator. To explain the .attitude of the great mass of the Mexican people towards recent developments, he first described briefly the political, social, and religious beliefs and customs of tile Mexican Indian. In spite of their contact with foreigners these beliefs and customs have remained unchanged throughout many generations. The old communal spirit and the idea of common ownership of the land still persist especially in the rural districts and villages; the old custom of a council for local self-government is reflected in the present-day labor committee. Mr. Steele discussed in order land oil, and mines.

Jan 1, 1938

By Betty M. Miller

INTRODUCTION In September 1974 the Resource Appraisal Group of the Branch of Oil and Gas Resources, U. S. Geological Survey, was asked to aid the Federal Energy Administration (FEA) in its legal responsibility to generate by June 1975 an independent appraisal of the undiscovered oil and gas resources of the United States, both onshore and offshore. As a result, the Resource Appraisal Group accelerated its ongoing efforts to develop sound appraisal methods and procedures that would permit the systematic collection and evaluation of basic data from petroleum provinces throughout the Nation. The results of this independent appraisal of the Nation's conventional oil and natural gas resources were published by the U. S. Geological Survey as Circular 725, June 1975 (1). The estimates in this report of undiscovered recoverable oil and gas resources for the United States were made: (1) by carefully re- viewing a large amount of geological and geophysical information gathered on more than 100 different provinces by over 70 geologists within the Survey; (2) by applying a variety of resource appraisal techniques to each potential petroleum province; and (3) by application of subjective probability procedures to group appraisals for each petroleum province. These methods provide a range of estimates which are summarized in terms of low, high and mean values for the various provinces and groups of provinces, or regions. The basic data and procedures used are documented and are being incorporated into a dynamic, data- intensive system that can be upgraded, updated and reevaluated periodically. These data are open to public inspection. In this study, the primary emphasis was placed on conventional crude oil and natural gas in the onshore provinces and the provinces on the continental shelf out to water depths of 200 metres; estimates

Jan 1, 1977

AT THE beginning of December, the Lausanne Con-ference was in session. The representatives of the United States declared the American position. The representatives of Russia were received and were heard. The Turks appeared at this conference in the attitude of victors, dictating terms. The British refused to surrender Mosul, and December thus ended with this question unsettled. Early in the month the premiers of the principal powers met in London for the discussion of the German reparations question, the temporary agreement expiring on. Jan. 15, 1923. On Dec. 11 the Conference adjourned without getting anywhere, and at the end of December prospects looked more hopeless than ever. The premiers are to meet again on Jan. 2, 1923. The interruption of the London conference was followed by the intimation of early participation of the United States in European affairs in the practical way of a large loan to Germany. These intimations, ema-nating from Washington, appear to have been in the nature of trial balloons. They showed that the wind was unfavorable, the bankers not considering conditions suitable for the flotation of such a loan. British statisticians are puzzled by the fact that the trade returns of Great Britain show a greater turnover in the volume of goods during the first 11 months of 1922 than in 1920, although the rate of labor employ-ment in 1920 was nearly 100 per cent. and in 1922 only about 86 per cent., with an economic situation admit-tedly so bad as to be alarming. The British Parliament was convened under the premiership of Bonar Law. One of its first acts was confirmation of the constitution of the Irish Free State. Civil war in Ireland continued. Poland, like most of the other countries of Europe, is torn between socialism and conservatism, with the former party at present predominant. Early in December, Gabriel Narutowicz, an engineer but a radical, was elected president. On Dec: 14 he entered office and-on Dec. 16 he was assassinated.

Jan 1, 1923

THE illustration below shows the design of the face of the clock to be erected as a memorial to the American engineers who gave their lives overseas in the World War. It will be placed in the tower of the library at Louvain, which has been rebuilt through contributions from America. Large clocks seldom have figures on their faces, and each hour on this one will be marked by a gold star, the four faces containing 48 stars, one for each State of the Union. Contributions toward the memorial have been received from every one of the States, and from Alaska and Hawaii as well, but additional subscriptions are invited by the Com-mittee which is arranging for the memorial.

Jan 3, 1928