Search Documents

By Chikabumi Yamauchi, Mitsuru Tanahashi, Tsuyoshi Taniguchi, Nobuo Furuta, Toshiharu Fujisawa

"It is essential to clarify the equilibrium relations among nonmetallic inclusions of the Mn0-SiO2-CrOx system and molten stainless steel in order to control non-metallic inclusions formed by the deoxidation of stainless steel with silicon. In the present study, the phase equilibria of the MnO-SiO2-CrOx system were measured by conducting the following experiments under controlled oxygen partial pressure, Po2, at 1873 K:1) Phase equilibria of the MnO-Cr20 3 binary system were measured for Po2 = 2 x 10-6 ~2 x 102 Pa.2) Phase equilibria of the MnO-SiO2-CrOx ternary system were measured for Po2 = 2 X 10-6 Pa.Based on the results, the phase diagram of this ternary system was established under the condition of the Si-deoxidation process of stainless steel (Po2 = 2 x 10-6 Pa and T = 1873 K).IntroductionAt the deoxidation stage in steelmaking process, generally multiple deoxidizers participate in deoxidation reactions, and the composition of deoxidation products ""non-metallic inclusions"" greatly varies depending on deoxidizing efoments and their contents. In order to control non-metallic inclusions formed by the refining process of steel, it is essential to clarify the equilibrium relations among non-metallic inclusions and molten steel.Especially, during the refining process of stainless steel, nonmetallic inclusions in molten steel seem to- change as follows. After the oxidation refining, Mn-chromite is formed in molten steel as non-metallic inclusion. By the deoxidation with silicon addition (mainly less than 1 mass%), Mn-chromite inclusions are changed their compositions to Mn-silicate. Segawa et al.[l] have reported the effect of amount of silicon addition on composition and mass ratio· of non-metallic inclusions during the Sideoxidation process of 18Cr-8Ni stainless steel at 1873 K, as shown in Figuri; L At higher silicon content than 0.5 mass%, only Mn-silicate was identified as non-metallic inclusion. On the other hand, at lower silicon content, both of Mn-chromite (MnO Cr2O 3) and Mn-silicate were identified. However, the thermodynamic and the kinetic analyses of the above-mentioned Sicdeoxidation process have not been made due to lack in the thermodynamic data for the non-metallic inclusions· of the MnO-SiO2-CrOx system, such as the phase diagrams, the activities of the components, and the free energy of intermediate compounds. In relation to the phase diagram of this system, those of the MnO-SiO2 [2] and the SiO2-Cr2O 3 [3] binary systems have been only reported"

Jan 1, 2000

By K. Itagaki, H. Henao

"The experimental study on the phase equilibrium and distribution of minor elements such as chromium and copper between magnesia saturated FeOx-MgO-SiO2 slag and Fe-Ni alloy were carried out under controlled oxygen partial pressure between 10-6-5 and 10-10 using CO and CO2 mixed gas at 1773 and 1873 K.The effect of slag additives such as lime (CaO/SiO2 molar ratio: 1) and alumina (AlO1.5/SiO2 molar ratio: 0.1) on the distribution behavior of the minor elements was also investigated.The value of distribution ratio for chromium, defined by (%Cr in slag)/[%Cr in alloy], is larger than 70 at the pO2 region conducted in the present study for the MgO saturated FeOx-MgO-SiO2 slag at 1773K. These value are almost 4-order higher then that of nickel though the distribution ratio of copper shows similar values with nickel. Analysis of the data indicates that addition of lime in the slag and the increase of temperature reduce the dissolution of chromium into the slag and the addition of aluminum increases the dissolution of chromium into the slag while reduces the dissolution of copper and nickel.IntroductionChromium. is a minor element in a nickel oxide ore but a Japan major component in the secondary material of stainless steel and is also introduced in the Fe-Ni production process due to dissolving bricks of a furnace. Chromium is a concerned matter for the beneficial utilization and disposition of ·slag because Cr6+ is a harmful element. Considering Fe-Ni as an alloy component in steel making, and the demand of high purity nickel, chromium is an -undesirable element that has to be eliminated into slag prior to the steel making, or the production of high temperature refractory alloys. On · the other ·hand chromium is an element of steel alloy for many applications, thus Fe-Ni containing chromium in minor element is desirable in some stainless steel making."

Jan 1, 2000

By T. Innmi

The potential of the nickel matte anode was measured during the matte electrolysis in the commercial cell. The slime layer consists of elemental sulfur and was found to greatly influence the potential of anode. The measurements of porosity and permeability of the slime suggest that the voltage drop of the slime layer dominates the potential. Furthermore, the diffusion of the electrolyte through the slime layer is also one of the factors to determine the potential. In addition, the copper content of the nickel matte anode was found to affect the change in the anode potential during the electrolysis. The role of copper on the anodic dissolution of nickel matte is discussed in this work.

Jan 1, 1988

By Matthew John M. Krane, Christopher J. Vreeman, J. David Schloz

"A continuum mixture model of the direct chill casting process is used to model the transport phenomena and solidification behavior in the Direct Chill casting of an Al - 6 wt% Cu billet using Wagstaffs AirslipTM process. The model, which includes the transport of free-floating solid particles, can simulate the effect of a grain refiner on macrosegregation and fluid flow. Numerical predictions of sump profiles and composition and temperature fields are presented. Two 45 cm diameter billets were cast under production conditions with and without grain refiner. Temperature and composition measurements and sump profiles are compared to the numerical results. The comparison shows excellent agreement for the grain refined case. It is believed that an incorrect model assumption prevents good agreement in the non-grain refined billet. IntroductionDirect chill casting is a semi-continuous process in which molten aluminum enters the top of a water-cooled mold, is cooled, and forms a solid ingot drawn out below (Figure l(b)). The molten aluminum begins to solidify due to the cooling effect of the mold wall. As the ingot is withdrawn from the bottom of the mold, water jets impinge on the surface, directly cooling the billet and forming a solid layer around a liquid melt, commonly referred to as the sump.A particular defect that occurs in a wide range of casting processes, including the direct chill (DC) casting of aluminum alloys, is macrosegregation, the uncontrolled redistribution of alloying elements on the scale of the ingot during solidification. Macrosegregation in DC cast ingots can produce non-uniform mechanical properties [l], which affects the behavior of the metal during downstream forming and heat treat operations."

Jan 1, 2001

By Stephen J. Hales

State-of-the-art Resistance Spot Welding (RSW) equipment has the potential to permit adaptive feedback through recent advances in computerized process control. The initial step toward achieving this goal involves assessment of the effect of specific variables and the interaction between these process inputs on spot weld characteristics. This investigation addresses this issue through the application of Taguchi methodology to understand and refine a RSW schedule developed for joining of two dissimilar aluminum-lithium (AI-Li) alloys of different nominal thickness. The experiment was designed to establish a hierarchy of inputs with respect to each 'other, and to determine the significance of these inputs with respect to experimental noise. Valuable insight was gained regarding the interaction between process variables and the effect of certain equipment-related changes. In spite of a decrease in equipment performance, an improvement in the maximum strength attainable for defect-free spot welds resulted from the application of the statistical experiment.

Jan 1, 1992

By Fuming Wang, Xin Lu, Hao Bai, Hebin Zhu

"In this study, CO2 emissions and carbon footprint of a typical steel works with integrated process and iron and steel industry in China was calculated and analyzed by a carbon footprint method based on the model of process CO2 emissions in iron and steel making. The carbon footprint of iron and steel industry from 1991 to 2010 in China showed a rapid increasing tendency. In 2008, the CO2 emissions of iron and steel industry in China was 1.289 billion tons, 19.71% of the national total CO2 emissions, and the corresponding carbon footprint was 159.13 million hm2 of green area. Carbon deficit of iron and steel industry also go up gradually if considering the carbon storage by green vegetation. Thus, the internal carbon reduction strategy, such as energy structure optimization and energy saving technology, was mainly encouraged for the sustainable development of iron and steel industry in China.IntroductionThe Global Warming resulting from the increase of Greenhouse Gases (GHGs), in particularly CO2, in the atmosphere has become the main reason of global climate change, and large emission reductions are required for sustainable development [ 1]. The iron and steel industry is the largest energy consuming manufacturing [2] in the world and the largest emitter of CO2 emissions. In 2005, it accounted for about 20% of global industrial energy use and 30% of energy and process CO2 emissions from industry [3]. In China, the crude steel has firmly been ranking at first of the world recent years and kept growing tendency year by year. With the production growth, the CO2 emissions of iron and steel industry also increased significantly and hence the steel industry has become one of the most sources of CO2 emission in China [4], which has attracted more and more attention to seek the carbon reduction strategies.Carbon footprint is an important and useful concept originating from Ecological Footprint, which was used efficiently to quantitatively analyze the impact of the human activities on ecological system, in particularly impact of the human energy activities [5]. In the view of Life Cycle, the carbon footprint is efficient to analyze the direct and indirect CO2 emission in the whole life of various products used in human activities. As to the iron and steel, the important materials and products in the human life, the carbon footprint analysis is quite necessary to evaluate the CO2 emission impact on the corresponding ecological system and global environmental."

Jan 1, 2013

By Teruhisa HORITA

The durability of SOFCs is one of the critical issues to realize the SOFC systems. In order to improve the durability, a precise degradation mechanism should be clarified at the different functional ceramic interfaces in SOFC cells and stacks. This paper reviews the improvement of SOFC durability by the mass transport analysis especially at cathode/interlayer/electrolyte interfaces. We have made a precise analysis on the reaction of cathode with impurities. Especially at the (La,Sr)(Co,Fe)O3/CeO2/ZrO2 interfaces, a significant amount of SrCrO4 and SrSO4 were observed at the (La,Sr)(Co,Fe)O3 surface as well as inside the (La,Sr)(Co,Fe)O3 cathode, which suggested some process occurred for both poisoning. Possible degradation mechanisms were proposed based on the observation data.

Jan 1, 2016

By Yuanbo Zhang, Qian Li, Helei Zhang, Heng Yu, Guanghui Li, Tao Jiang

"Large reserves of specularite iron ores have been found all over the world, which is characterized by high total iron grade, low gangues content, as well as low commercial price. However, it has not been widely used in sinter or pellet production due to its inferior sintering and roasting behaviors. It has shown that the proportion of specularite ores was increased as high as 40%~50% and good results was achieveed by using Composite Agglomeration Process (CAP), an innovative agglomeration process invented by Central South University. But the mineralization of specularite is still unknown during composite agglomeration processing. In this paper, the induration characteristic of specularite ore is studied by simulating CAP in laboratory, as well as microstructure analysis of CAP product. The results show that specularite pellet is mainly indurated through recrystallization of Fe2O3, calcium ferrite within high basicity sinters matrix interweaves with the recrystallized Fe2O3 on the surface of the pellet, which forms an integral microstructure, and ensures high strength of CAP product for ironmaking.IntroductionLarge reserves of specularite iron ores have been found all over the world, especially in Minas Gerais of Brazil, Xuanhua city and Anshan city of China, Elba island of Italy, St.Gotthard of Switzerland, Cumberland of Britannic, and so on. The specularite ores have a smooth surface, as well as a good crystallization and dense texture. When specularite is used to produce pellets, the specularite ore grains are difficult to adhere onto green ball due to its poor ballability. Moreover, specularite pellet requires high roasting temperature over 1300°C [1]. When specularite ore is used in sintering, the permeability of sintering bed gets bad and the quality of sinter is diminished. The practice in a few sintering plants finds that the output and strength of sinter decrease with the increase of specularite proportion, and the consumption of coke increases [2-4]. Therefore, the utilization of specularite has been limited. Composite Agglomeration Process (CAP) is an innovative technology invented by Central South University [5-7]. The process has the following merits: making reasonable utilization of different iron ore resources; improving the quality and output of sinters; manufacturing sinters with low basicity; significantly reducing energy consumption, etc[8-9]. It has been shown that large proportion specularite ores, as high as 40%~50% can be used well by CAP [10], but the mineralization of specularite pellet is still unknown during composite agglomeration processing. In this investigation, the induration characteristics of specularite ore pellets is studied by simulating CAP in laboratory, and the phase composition and microstructure of CAP product are also characterized by using microscope and Leica image analyzer (Germany, Leica DM RXp)."

Jan 1, 2011

By Dirk Verhulst

The Altair process employs digestion of ilmenite ore in concentrated hydrochloric acid, solvent extraction to concentrate Ti in a purified stream and spray hydrolysis to produce a TiO2 hydrate, followed by final calcining and milling. HCl gas is regenerated by pressure-swing distillation and reinjected in the leaching solution. All chloride streams are recycled. Chromium compounds generally remain in the residue. Solvent extraction provides flexibility for the removal of naturally occurring radioactive elements (NORMs) present in some ilmenites. The process was previously tested at a 5 t/day feed scale. Recent work at pilot scale (40 liter reactor) led to further improvements. Recovery of Ti in solution is now at least 90% with ilmenite ores, while crystallization at lower temperature lowers the amount of Fe in solution to about 5 g/l and improves solvent extraction, which is now conducted in columns. Higher Ti and lower Fe concentrations in the SX eluate improve the economics. A new formula for pigment production via spray hydrolysis produces a pigmentary base with a narrow particle size distribution.

Jan 1, 2003

By John Wallace

"Monitoring compound semiconductor crystal growth using multifrequency eddy currents for sensing illustrates some of the extreme problems of measurement and interpretation that are not often seen in metallic systems. Using sensor arrays and scanning sensors have produced a qualitative and quantitative understanding of some of the high temperature electrical conductivity mechanisms in several compound systems. A detailed review of the CdTe/CdZnTe data is presented showing some of the complexity in the data as opposed to what is found in elemental semiconductors.HistoryThe most common goal in the use of eddy current measurement in crystal growth is to deter-mine the curvature of the liquid solid interface during growth to test if the heat transfer estimates of the thermal design were adequate for single crystal growth[l]. This aim could be met but represented only a small fraction of the data that was produced observing a growth cycle. A secondary consideration was what could be discovered in the recorded data about the growth and subsequent heat treatment as the boule cooled. This is usually a more difficult task because a crystal growth process is not a controlled experiment so much as a process that continually sees modification. Using a sensor arrays or a scanning loop has produced a qualitative and quantitative basis for understanding some of the high temperature electrical conductivity mechanisms. The implication of the these measurements of electrical conductivity variations are important in that they reflect the complex defect states that will occur on cooling and heat treatment following crystal growth. In contrast to the complex behavior of the conductivity of these compound semiconductors in the solid and liquid state we have the very well characterized system silicon to compare. Initially the interest on using eddy currents to monitor compound semiconductors came from G. Westphal at the Texas; Instruments Company in 1987 to monitor aspects of growth and compounding of GaAs. This was followed by work on solution growth of HgCdTe with D. Witter. The initial interest in the use of eddy cur-rents for monitoring CdTe crystal growth came from Prof. Wilcox at Clarkson University in the practical interest to determine and control the crystal interface curvature during vertical brigdeman growth. The first actual work was done by one of his former students. G. Neuge-bauer at the II-VI Corporation which was carried on by G. Rosen at Clarkson and R. Shetty at II-VI Corporation and with A. Socha at Johnson-Matthey Electronics. The work on CdTe extends over four years and yielded sufficient data to allow one to evaluate the utility of the information produced as compared to what could be obtained from monitoring an elemental semiconductor such as silicon."

Jan 1, 1997

By Chuan-fu Zhang

In present work, the physical properties of molten FenO-MgO-CaO-SiO2 slags were measured .It is shown by the results that when the slag composition is as follow: MgO 8%~12%, CaO 2%~8%, Fe/SiO2 1.2~1.6, the viscosity of the slags decreases with the increase of temperature. When the Fe/SiO2ratio and the MgO content are fixed, the electrical conductivity increases and the viscosity decreases as CaO content increasing, while the content of CaO exceeds 6% its influence weakens. When the MgO content is 11% and the CaO is 6%, the viscosity of the slag decreases markedly as the increase of Fe/SiO2 ratio. Its influence to viscosity is inconspicuous when the Fe/SiO2 ratio exceeds 1.5. When the CaO content is 6% and Fe/SiO2 is 1.2, the electrical conductivity decreases with the increase of MgO content as temperature is below 1290, but increases when temperature is above 1290. When the MgO content is 11% and the Fe/SiO2 ratio is 1.2, the electrical conductivity increases with the increase of CaO content. When the CaO content is 6% and MgO content is 11%, the electrical conductivity increases as the increase of Fe/SiO2 ratio, while its influence weakens as the temperature increases continuously. The electrical conductivity rises when temperature increases at any slag content. The melting temperatures of FenO-MgO-CaO-SiO2 semi- synthesis slags from this work were below 1290.

Jan 1, 2006

By Olexandr Gydin

The evolution of grain and dislocation structures during cold deformation of the new steel LH800 of Salzgitter AG is investigated in the frame of this work. The main feature of this material is its ability to air-harden by carbon content of about 0.1%. The initial ferrite structure of the metal provides high plasticity at cold deformation and subsequent heat treatment increases tensile strength approximately two times. Described are results of in-situ tensile tests in the SEM. SEM and TEM analysis of grain and dislocation structures evolution in samples, which have been uniaxially deformed to certain strains, are carried out. After statistical evaluation of results the grain elongation against strain is determined. A microstructure of a deep drawn cup is analyzed by means of SEM. A quantitative evaluation of grain elongation on the different cup zones and comparison of these data with prediction results based on tensile tests are carried out.

Jan 1, 2009

By Hongbo Zhu, Jinhui Peng, Linqing Dai

"To optimize the process variables for making direct reduced iron (DRI) by microwave heating, the reduction temperature, reduction time and the ratio of coal to material were studied with the central composite design (CCD) and their interactions on the Metallization rate were also investigated. The predictive polynomial quadratic equations model was analyzed by ANOVA. Optimal conditions of making DRI can be concluded as follows: 28 min at 1139?, the ratio of coal to material is 20.95%. Under these conditions, the metallization rate is up to 97.06%.1. IntroductionThere are some technical problems in making direct reduced iron (DRI) or sponge iron using iron ore concentrates containing coal and lime. In reduction of the iron ore concentrates containing coal with microwave heating, the strength of pellets needn’t to be considered. It reduces the costs and improve quality of materials, but also eliminates the need for pellet preparation process, simplifying the process and achieving a cleaner production.Microwave energy is a clean energy, and has characteristic of selective heating. The speed of heating is also fast. It researched by Chen Jin that when the mole mass of C: O is 0.627 and the microwave power is 15KW, it only spends 15min from 15? to 1021.6? with 1 kg iron ore containing coal with microwave heating [1]. There are many factors affecting metallization rate. In order to find a suitable condition for reduction process, it is necessary to design a series of suitable experiments.Response surface methodology (RSM) is one of the relevant multivariate techniques which can deal with multivariant experimental design strategy, statistical modeling and process optimization [2–5]. It is used to examine the relationship between one or more response variables and a set of quantitative experimental variables or factors. This method is often employed after the identification of the vital controllable factors to find the factor settings that optimize the response. Designs of this type are usually chosen when a curvature in the response surface is suspected. The process optimization of the microwave reduced iron ore was seldom reported in literature. Hence the present work intends to assess the effects of variables such as reduction time, reduction temperature and the ratio of coal to identify the optimum conditions using a central composite design (CCD). The characteristic of product was assessed using scanning electron microscope (SEM)."

Jan 1, 2011

By H. J. Roorda

With an increasing need to obtain metals by processing complex fine intergrown ores, the use of electron-optical techniques will become more important as a tool for mineralogical studies. Electron images enable a higher spacial resolution than can be obtained by optical microscopy and thus provide a powerful and necessary aid for the examination of small grains and finely locked particles. In this paper the mineralogy of Meggen ore was investigated. Both light-optical and electron-optical techniques were used to evaluate the mill feed and products of the concentrator. Detailed examination by reflected-light microscopy to assess the comportment of galena in the complex pyritic ore was inconclusive in establishing the cause for low lead recovery of only forty percent of the ore's lead content. Electron microprobe analyses indicated that the majority of the lead lost to the tailings was accounted for by extreme fine (often smaller than one micron) and complex intergrowths of galena in pyrite. The remainder was lost as fine free galena grains.

Jan 1, 1987

By Chonghe Li, Xionggang Lu, Wei Xiao, Xingli Zou, Weizhong Ding

The reduction degree and rate of the initial ilmenite concentrate and pre-oxidation samples by hydrogen were investigated by using thermogravimetric analysis system. H2-TPR was used to detected reduction properties of the pre-oxidation products which were oxidized at different temperatures. The phase transformations and micromorphology changes during pre-oxidation and hydrogen reduction were identified by XRD and SEM. The FeTiO3 was decomposed into TiO2 and Fe2O3 at the temperature below 900 oC. With the temperature rising, Fe2TiO5 was the only stable phase in high temperatures. The reduction of pre-oxidation ilmenite concentrate was faster than the natural sample, which was attributed to the micropores generated on the surface of ilmenite concentrate during oxidation. The main phases of the reduction product were metallic iron, ferrous pseuodbrookite.

Jan 1, 2014

By E. Krystad, G. Tranell

"The kinetics of boron removal from liquid silicon during slag refining, as a process step in the production of solar grade silicon, has been investigated by means of small scale mass transfer experimental series at 1600°C, using a graphite crucible. The slags were SiO2-CaO based, with or without addition of approx. 19 wt% MgO. Experiments were carried out at slag-metal ratios of 1 or 2, where the silicon initially contained approx. 250 ppm boron. The metal-slag mass transfer coefficients for boron were found to be in the order of 1-3 · 10-6 m/s and were largely influenced by slag composition. The mass transfer rate was higher for the MgO-containing slag than the slags without MgO. The final equilibrium distribution of boron between metal and slag, LB, was determined to be in the order of 2.3-3.3.I. INTRODUCTIONRecent years have seen a race in industry and research aimed at obtaining a reliable metallurgical route for production of silicon for solar cells (SoG-Si) from metallurgical grade (MG) silicon. Metallurgical routes can successfully challenge the traditional chemical routes for production of SoG-Si if they generate metal of sufficient purity while being less expensive in terms of production cost and energy consumption. Efficient removal of boron is one of the greatest obstacles in the refining of silicon by a metallurgical route, because the segregation coefficient of boron in silicon makes directional solidification unfeasible; in addition, the vapour pressure of boron is not high enough for removal by vacuum refining. However, the thermodynamic properties of boron makes removal from silicon by oxidation possible, and thus the process of slag refining of silicon has been receiving increasing attention as a method for boron removal."

Jan 1, 2012

By E. T. de Groot, D. L. Verhelst

With the successful start-up of Cominco's new KIVCET smelter, the final key component is now in place for Trail Operations to operate efficiently as a modern integrated zinc-lead facility. Unique metallurgical, operational, planning and management issues apply to this operation. Along with presenting the current flowsheet for Trail Operations, this paper discusses issues such as the impact of recycles, operational re-stabilization following significant process changes, plant operation with just-in-time inventories, real-time process optimization, and management philosophy.

Jan 1, 2000

By Feng Gao

A general unsteady- state model, based on a cracked substrate, has been developed to account for reaction and diffusion within porous substrate during oxidation of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Carbon matrix (CIC) composites. The effects of several parameters, such as diffusion and reaction rate ratio, oxygen concentration, and composite density, on oxidation process are explored. Also, theoretical results for a set of parameter values of the CIC composites are compared with experimental data. It shows that the model predicted values agreed well with the experimental data in weight loss. Based on this model, quantitative predictions of oxidation of a composite with cracked substrate can be made.

Jan 1, 1993

By Hong Yong Sohn, Miguel Olivas-Martinez

"Different approaches are used for calculating the ‘energy requirement’ of a process. The determination of energy requirement becomes confusing for a process in which a fuel is also a reactant. The key issue is which heat of chemical reaction should be included in the ‘energy requirement’ value. We will use the example of ironmaking processes to illustrate the problem. The different approaches essentially boil down to the question: does one include the combustion heat of the reductant used in the reduction reaction or just the heat of the reduction reaction? Depending on the viewpoint, either approach can be accepted; it is a matter of convention. There is a need, however, to select a standard approach because the absolute value of ‘energy requirement’ of a process depends on the choice. The energy requirement of a novel flash ironmaking process will be compared with that of an average blast furnace operation.IntroductionDifferent approaches are used for performing energy balance calculations and perhaps more significantly in presenting the ‘energy requirement’ of a process. The question becomes more involved for a process in which one or more reactants are also used to generate the process heat by combustion. Often the key issue is which heat of chemical reaction to include in presenting the ‘energy requirement’ of the process.It is worthwhile to note at the outset that the difference in energy requirements between different processes for converting similar raw materials to the same desired product is largely unaffected by the choice of chemical reactions to be included. However, the absolute value presented as the ‘energy requirement’ of a process can be different by a large amount depending on the approach. We use the example of ironmaking processes to illustrate the problem. In these processes, as currently practiced or under development, carbon and/or hydrocarbons (including hydrogen) are used as the fuel as well as the reactant for reducing the iron oxide mineral.The different approaches in this case essentially boil down to the following question: does one include the combustion heat of the reductant used in the reduction reaction or treat the reductant portion as just a reactant? Depending on the viewpoint, either approach can be considered acceptable. It is a matter of convention. There is a need, however, to select a standard approach because the absolute value of ‘energy requirement’ of an ironmaking process (e.g., the currently dominant blast furnace process) depends on such a choice. It is particularly important to clearly state the specific approach used when the energy requirement of ironmaking is compared with those of other industrial processes such as petrochemicals production."

Jan 1, 2014

By Singareddy R. Reddy, Ramana G. Reddy

"The Margules equation is used for interpreting excess Gibbs energy of several ternary systems. An expression for the activity coefficient of a dilute solute, 2(oxygen), in a binary solvent 1-3 is derived. It is used to calculate the logarithmic activity coefficient of oxygen in Pb-O-Gu, Pb-O-Bi, AgO- Sn, Pb-O-Sn and Ag-O-Pb metallic systems. Self interaction parameter of the solute is derived from the partial Gibbs energy of solute using constant compositional path. The derived equation is used successfully to deduce the self interaction parameter of oxygen in Pb-O-Gu and Pb-O-Bi metallic systems. The predicted thermodynamic parameter data i.e activity coefficient and self-interaction parameters are in an excellent agreement with the experimental data and also our predictions are far more accurate than the predictions made by other models.1 IntroductionThe nature of solute interactions such as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur with the metallic solutions are important for a number of chemical and metallurgical processes. Several theories [1-23] have been developed to evaluate fundamental thermodynamic properties of solutes constituting two elements. The activity of solutes has been calculated using statisticalor quasi- chemical approach.Wagner's [4] Ideal Solvent Model is based on one energy parameter to describe the compositional dependencies of the activity coefficient of nonmetallic solutes such as oxygen in binary metallic solutions. This model depends on a constant energy of interaction for the exchange of atoms from the coordination shell of an oxygen atom to the shell of an interstitial site and cannot account for properties of strongly interacting systems [4]. Therefore, several attempts have been made to improve the Wagner's model for the strongly interacting systems. [10-16]."

Jan 1, 1996