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This paper describes developments in ferro-nickel furnace technology, specifically improvements to cooling methods, furnace controls, and high voltage furnace operating regime. The evolution of these technologies is briefly presented, as context for describing the current state of the art that has enabled ferro-nickel furnace operation at over 75 MW and specific energy consumption of less than 400 kWh/t dry ore. Examples from existing operations are used to illustrate present best practices, and potential future trends are discussed: The paper begins with an overview of the fundamental aspects of pyrometallurgical treatment of lateritic ores that drive ferro-nickel furnace design. Furnace wall cooling methods are related to the requirements resulting from specific furnace process conditions, including slag and metal compositions, as well as arc and bath power. The benefits of high productivity and low specific energy consumption resulting from high voltage (shielded-arc) operating practice are discussed, along with the furnace controls and electrical power train that enable such operation even with captive power generation. This paper is an update of that which the authors prepared for the Infacon X ferro-alloys conference.

Jan 1, 2004

By Yves Fouquet

Recent exploration demonstrates that hydrothermal systems related to upper mantle ultramafic outcrops are common in the modern ocean. Most sites are located on slow spreading ridges with a low magmatic budget. Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide (VMS) deposits, associated with basalt, along the Mid Atlantic Ridge (MAR) are volcanically controlled near the topographic highs at the center of the segments. Three preferential settings are identified for ultramafic sulfide mineralization: 1) Off axis, on rift valley walls, near the amagmatic ends of the segments; 2) Non-transform offsets and 3) Ultramafic dome structures at the ridge transform fault intersection. The upper surface of these domes is often interpreted as a detachment fault. Three processes are considered for driving hydrothermal cells in ultramafic rocks: 1) regional heat flow at the ridge axis 2) Cooling of a deep gabbroic intrusion and 3) exothermic heat produced during serpentinisation. Along the Mid Atlantic Ridge, four types of ultramafic hydrothermal mineralization are observed: 1) High temperature (>350°C) sulfide mineralization related to low pH fluids, (ex. The Logachev field at 14°45? N and the Rainbow field at 36°14 N); 2) Medium temperature carbonate chimneys (<100°C) related to high pH fluids (ex. The Lost City site at 30°N); 3) Low temperature diffuse venting associated with extremely high methane discharge and pervasive alteration and silicification of both volcanic and ultramafic rocks (ex : The Saldanha field at 36°34 N); 4) Stockwork mineralization and quartz veins with sulfides related to gabbroic intrusions within ultramafic rocks (15°N). When compared to mineralization in a basaltic environment, sulfide deposits are enriched in copper, zinc and specific elements related to an ultramafic rock source such as Ni and Co. They are also significantly enriched in gold which, unlike in basaltic environments, has a bimodal occurrence both in low temperature Zn-rich assemblages and in high temperature Cu-rich mineral assemblages. The Cu-Zn-Co-Au deposits along the Mid Atlantic Ridge seem to be more common than on land where few similar VMS deposits are known. We consider that ultramafic VMS deposits on slow spreading ridges constitute a specific marine type of mineralization that is less easily than back arc deposits, incorporated into the continent during obduction processes.

Jan 1, 2004

By N. A. Duke, R. L. Carpenter

Abstract - The West Meliadine area is underlain by structurally interleaved panels of mafic and minor ultramafic metavolcanic rocks and metasedimentary rocks that occur along the northern margin of the Neoarchean Rankin Inlet greenstone belt. Three structural and metamorphic domains are recognized: (1) the easterly Wesmeg domain; (2) the central Barracuda-Ridge domain; and (3) the westerly Peter Lake domain. The Wesmeg domain is characterized by a series of southeast-trending, north-dipping, foliation-parallel panels of greenschist facies mafic metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks. The Barracuda-Ridge domain is comprised of greenschist to amphibolite facies mafic metavolcanic rocks that define an east-northeast-trending structural grain. The Peter Lake domain consists of amphibolite facies mafic metavolcanic rocks and minor metasedimentary rocks intruded by a monzonite pluton. West Meliadine hosts the economically significant Wesmeg gold deposits, as well as other important gold showings across the Barracuda-Ridge and Peter Lake domains. The geological setting of the Wesmeg gold deposits resembles that of a break or fault zone. The Pyke Break is a major geophysical discontinuity (>65-km strike length) and is the first-order structural control on gold mineralization at West Meliadine. It is several kilometers wide and characterized by polyphase deformation and shear zone development accompanied by lode-gold mineralization. In general, gold concentration is related to quartz and iron-carbonate veining, iron sulfides (mainly arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite), and accompanying silicate alteration minerals that overprint favorable chemical and structural traps late in the history of deformation.

Jan 1, 2004

By C. O. Aksoy, H. Kose, K. Heasley, E. Yalçin

"In Turkey, the growing demand for lignite has resulted in increased lignite production and an emphasis on improving underground recovery. This has resulted in a gradual increase in the application of the retreat longwall mining method and also in the extraction of the safety pillars protecting permanent underground structures (drifts, shafts) in mines prior to their abandonment.Extracting these safety pillars presents a special hazard to mine employees and the stability of the mine. Often subjected to high stresses, the behaviour of these pillars is not always predictable. Special care must be taken to ensure that infrastructure does not collapse prematurely, and that working conditions remain safe. Otherwise the extraction must be halted, and the remaining coal lost.This investigation reports on a study of the stability of safety pillars during the final extraction phase of the Hustas mine in Soma, Turkey.” The model construction was based on mine plans, and material properties were derived from physical properties testing. Observed subsidence effects from other mining events were used to calibrate the overburden lamination thickness.The model results compared well with surface physical disturbance occurring as a result of mining, as well as with conventional longwall stress redistribution theory and underground observations. The study has shown that properly calibrated models can be useful in assessing mine safety during remnant pillar extraction. The LAMODEL results demonstrate the convenience of this easy to use software."

Jan 1, 2004

By J. H. Zietsman

It has previously been observed that industrial high-titania slags display a compositional invariance, remaining close to stoichio-metric M3O5. The present study focuses on this invariance and the phenomena which may cause it. The invariance was studied using thermochemical calculations and a mechanism is proposed for the observed behaviour. The mechanism suggests that a combination of thermochemical equilibrium and transient slag solidification and melting results in the observed compositional invariance. The proposed mechanism provides new insights and prompts questions about other mechanisms in the smelting process.

Jan 1, 2004

By R. J. Hundermark, S. Sun

The oxidation state dependence of the electrical conductivity of a calcium ferrite slag with 25 wt% CaO was measured at 1300°C using a shallow slag layer and two-electrode technique. The experiments were started in air and the slag was sequentially reduced by means of a controlled gas atmosphere using CO2and CO. The electrical conductivity in air was approximately 300 S/m and increased with reduction to approximately 1900 S/m at a pO2of 10-10atm. The interest in the oxidation state dependence of the conductivity of calcium ferrite slags was to provide a comparison with the conductivity of iron silicate slags and to establish the effect of slag basicity on the electrical conductivity and its oxidation state dependence. The results obtained are discussed in terms of the slag structural information available in the literature. The co-ordination of the ferric ions appears to play a large role in determining the electrical conductivity. Keywords: calcium ferrite, slags, electrical conductivity.

Jan 1, 2004

By F. T. Cawood

One of the consequences of globalizing mine finance is a necessity to apply uniform accountancy and valuation standards that are clearly understood and consistently applied by the global investment community. However, each country has unique circumstances, which sometimes make it difficult to align domestic practice with international requirements. South Africa is no exception and issues such as its political history, a taxation regime enforcing different rules on different mineral producers and a unique mineral rights ownership distribution, are barriers to internationalization. The economy is in a transitional phase as a result of the many and diverse policy documents following the change in political dispensation in 1994. Many of these documents have recently been implemented through new legislation and, in the case of mining, negotiations are continuing in order to ensure an acceptable outcome. This paper discusses the challenges that the South African minerals industry faces in the field of mineral property valuation. It draws on international experience and includes a discussion on the unique considerations that the South African mineral property market must take into account in establishing a code for this purpose, as such a code could later be aligned with international practice.

Jan 1, 2004

By Bill Loviza, Jimmy Sanders

This report is not everything we would like it to be. Access to information concerning unresolved legal actions is a sensitive matter. Obtaining the information presented in this report was a challenge alone. The Tennessee Department of Commerce and Insurance, Division of Fire Prevention, the firms and individuals that elected to share information did so with various assurances of nondisclosure, confidentiality or anonymity. All those providing information did so with the expectation that the industry and ultimately the public would benefit from this effort. We offer special thanks to Assistant Commissioner, Fire Prevention, Emmett Turner, recently retired Director, Bomb and Arson, Dick Gardner and Director, Codes Enforcement, Randy Safer for support that made this endeavor possible. We make no claim with regard to being a scientific study. We did the best we could with available information. Our task was one of assembly, sorting and reporting. Where collateral information was available we used it.

Jan 1, 2004

By Zhang Yaonian

This paper describes full-scale tests on ten large bored piles with grouted end conducted for three projects in the urban area of Fuzhou city. Test program included site investigation, pile installation and end grouting. The piles were instrumented with strain gages and load cells to determine load distribution in the piles. Test results showed that end grouting improves load-settlement performance of bored pile. End grouting significantly increases the shaft resistance near the pile end. The better the end condition, the greater the shaft resistance. The average shaft resistance of the bored piles with grouted end is much higher than that of piles without grouting.

Jan 1, 2004

By L. Cifuentes, J. M. Casas

The treatment of aqueous CuSO4-H2SO4- As-Sb solutions by electrodialysis in order to separate and concentrate species of interest has recently been studied. Results show that it is possible to separate copper from arsenic in electrodialysis cells. The separation of copper from antimony is also possible. Transport rate ranges that could be achieved, depending on experimental conditions, are 0.2 to 0.6 mol per hour per square metre of membrane for copper, 0.65 to 2.8 for sulphate, and 0.016 to 0.03 for arsenic. Transport rates for antimony were inconclusive due to its very low solubility in the studied systems. Solution agitation and increasing temperature markedly increased the process rates. Advancements in this area require further work in both the thermodynamics (speciation) and kinetics of complex CuSO4- H2SO4-H2O systems, where impurities, other than As and Sb, and additives should be taken into account to gain a deeper understanding of the application of ED to copper electrorefining electrolytes

Jan 1, 2004

By Orica

Unlicking the Possibilities ISEE Digital Detonator Workshop New Orleans, LA Wednesday, February 4, 2004

Jan 1, 2004

By C. Balci

Specific energy is defined as the amount of work required to break a unit volume of rock and is used to predict the performance of mechanical miners. It is obtained from full-scale rock cutting experiments, which require large block samples, experienced personnel and expensive equipment found in only a few research centres in the world. Estimation of the optimum specific energy, at which a given geological formation is excavated at optimum cutting geometry in the most energy efficient manner, from mechanical rock properties to predict the performance/efficiency of roadheaders is the basic aim of this study. The mechanical rock property tests require only core samples, which are easier to obtain and to test. In this context, full-scale rock cutting tests are performed on 23 different rock, mineral and ore samples including sandstone, claystone, tuffite, chromite, trona and copper collected from some operating mines in Turkey. The optimum specific energy values are obtained for each sample. Physical and mechanical property tests are performed on the core samples obtained from the same samples to determine uniaxial compressive strength, indirect (Brazilian) tensile strength, static and dynamic elasticity moduli, Schmidt hammer rebound values, density, and Cerchar abrasivity index. The relationships between the optimum specific energy and the mechanical rock properties are analysed using statistical methods. The results indicate strong relationships between the optimum specific energy and the mechanical rock properties. The strongest relationships are found by using uniaxial compressive strength and tensile strength. The performance models developed in this study are in good agreement with the empirical models previously developed for roadheaders and can be used reliably for prediction purposes. Keywords: Mechanical excavation, roadheader, performance prediction, rock cutting, optimum specific energy, mechanical properties of rocks.

Jan 1, 2004

By S. Sun

Recent studies on the physico-chemical properties of molten slags and oxide solid solutions of interest is reviewed. The review covers redox and phase equilibria in slags, viscosity, diffusivity, electrical conductivity, kinetics of interfacial reactions between slags and CO-CO2, interfacial properties and phenomena. Some highlights from ongoing work on modelling phase diagrams, component activity, viscosity and electrical conductivity of multi-component slags will be presented and results compared with published experimental data on slags with or without suspended solid phases.

Jan 1, 2004

By K. Madi, E. Yeugo Fogaing, S. Forest, M. Boussuge, L. Massard, M. Huger, Gaultm C.

This study has been carried out owing to the French research program PROMETHEREF, which aims to improve the knowledge of thermal and mechanical properties of industrial refractories at high temperature. In this frame, this paper relates a collaborative study between Saint-Gobain CREE, R&D Centre for Saint-Gobain Ceramics & Plastics in Europe (Cavaillon), the Materials Center P.M. Fourt of Ecole des Mines de Paris (Evry) and the Research Group on Heterogeneous Materials (GEMH) of ENSCI (Limoges). Data collected at high temperatures by using different means (bending tests, ultrasonic measurements,...) allows the identification of the high temperature behavior of two fused cast materials, produced by Saint-Gobain group for the glass manufacturing industry. The results emphasize the importance of the transformation of zirconia and of the viscosity of the glassy intergranular phase on the mechanical behavior. Damage under the form of microcracking caused by thermal expansion mismatch between the phases is also observed during cooling down at low temperature, when the material is elastic.

Jan 1, 2004

By Leo Gilbride

Western U.S. longwall operators face increasing challenges with optimizing ground control and productivity as mines reach greater depths and coal bursting hazards increase. Some western U.S. mines, many known to be bump-prone, achieved a successful balance between ground control and productivity by transitioning to side-by-side longwall panel mining combined with a yield pillar gateroad system. With this design, development footages could be minimized and pillar bumping averted by controlled yielding at moderate depths, generally in the range of 450 to 600 m. Over the past four decades, the yield pillar system has won wide acceptance among western mines facing pillar bursting hazards, particularly those in the Wasatch Plateau and Book Cliff coal fields of central Utah. However, recent attempts among the deepest Utah operators to mine side¬by-side panels with yield pillars at depths in excess of 600 m have been met with mixed success and, in some circumstances, with serious difficulty. Challenges include violent face bursting and excessive tailgate convergence outby the face, which can be crippling to ventilation. The use of interpanel barriers, i.e., barriers left between longwall panels, offers one possible solution to mining under deep cover with bump-prone geology. Interpanel barriers have already been adopted by Utah&apos;s deepest longwall mine, and others are considering their use. The geomechanical implications of mining with and without interpanel barriers, and the competing tradeoffs between ground control and ventilation are discussed.

Jan 1, 2004

By James L. Vanderbeek

INTRODUCTION Semiautogenous (SAG) grinding technology first started to be seriously considered for comminution circuit design in the mid-1960s as an alternative to the three-stage crushing circuits and rod-ball mill circuits in vogue at the time. Since this time the application of SAG mill technology has become widespread with over 250 mills larger than 20 feet in diameter sold (Jones 2002). The vast majority of concentrators constructed over the past quarter century have utilized SAG mill technology, and a SAG-based comminution-based circuit is generally the first choice considered for new projects. Since the first generation of SAG milling technology was applied, many lessons have been learned, and new supporting technologies have emerged which make the design, installation and operation of SAG &-based grinding circuits more robust and efficient. This paper will discuss the current status of SAG and associated technologies. MILL MECHANICAL DESIGN ISSUES Table 1 summarizes the manner in which SAG design capability has evolved over the past 30 years. Increases in mill diameter came slowly as the industry took a wait-and-see attitude as the technology of larger mill diameters was advanced. The first 32-foot- diameter mill was ordered in 1969. It was not until 1979 that the technology jumped to the 34-foot-diameter mill and 1988 for the first 36-foot-diameter mill. The first 38- and 40-foot-diameter mills were both ordered in 1996. At least five 38-foot-diameter and two 40-foot-diameter mills will be in operation by mid-2004. Advances in structural analytical techniques and increased computational power, coupled with field measurements of large operating mills, have increased the confidence of the mill suppliers in their designs and the operating companies in the viability of larger diameter mills. No failures of a 36-foot-diameter mill or larger have been

Jan 1, 2004

By T. Watanabe, M. Nakagawa, K. Kimapong

Ultrasonic wave was irradiated on metal surface in water to introduce compressive residual stress. The ultrasonic wave that was oscillated with 19.5 kHz ultrasonic transducer and amplified with a step type horn was irradiated. Slight plastic deformation occurred at the surface region of pure metal such as Cu and compressive residual stress was introduced. It seemed that the plastically deformed depth from the metal surface corresponded approximately to the depth of introduced residual stress. The higher compressive residual stress could be introduced into the surface of Cu-Zn brass and SUS304 stainless steel because work-hardening was simultaneously induced to those alloys. Furthermore, since martensitic transformation was induced by the plastic deformation in the case of SUS304, the compressive residual stress could be introduced more deeply into the surface region. The residual stress of SUS304 reached to the maximum value of 574 MPa by irradiating for 5min.

Jan 1, 2004

By Frank Borda

Two recent projects were completed in Ontario, Canada for major hospital additions that involved excavation support of heritage masonry structures. Conventional continuous caisson wall schemes were replaced, with significant cost savings, by tied back shotcrete systems. Using a combination of conventional design and FLAC analysis, excavation support was designed to permit excavation in competent to weak soils that limited horizontal movements of the existing structures to between 3 and 8 mm. The use of vertical wall elements (micropiles) integral to the shotcrete wall to support both the vertical wall loads and the face of the excavation was deemed to significantly reduce lateral and vertical wall movements. FLAC analysis was used successfully to predict wall movements and optimize design. The shotcrete method proved to be flexible and adaptable to design changes during the project. This permitted convenient accommodation of changes to the building geometry after excavation support had commenced. In addition the method accommodated staged demolition and excavation support of portions of the existing structure at low cost, conveniently and without delays.

Jan 1, 2004

By Gerrit V. R. Goodman

A laboratory study assessed the impacts of water spray pressure, face ventilation quantity, and line brattice setback distance on respirable dust and SF6 tracer gas concentrations around a continuous mining machine using a sprayfan or directional spray system. Dust levels were measured at locations representing the mining machine operator and the standard and off-standard shuttle car operators, and in the return airway. The results showed that changes in all three independent variables significantly affected log-transformed dust levels at the three operator sampling locations. Changes in setback distance impacted return airway dust levels. Laboratory testing also identified numerous variable interactions affecting dust levels. Tracer gas levels were measured on the left and right sides of the cutting drum and in the return. Untransformed gas levels around the cutting drum were significantly affected by changes in water pressure, face ventilation quantity, and setback distance. Only a few interactions were identified that significantly affected these concentrations. Gas levels in the return airway were grouped by face ventilation quantity. Return gas levels measured at the low curtain quantity were generally unaffected by changes in water pressure or curtain setback distance. At the high curtain quantity, return airway gas levels were affected by curtain setback distance. A field study was conducted to assess the impact of these parameters in an actual mining operation. These data showed that respirable dust levels may have been impacted by a change in water pressure and, to a lesser extent, by an increase in curtain setback distance. A series of tracer gas pulse tests were also conducted during this study. The results showed that effectiveness of the face ventilation was impacted by changes in curtain flow quantity and setback distance. Laboratory testing supported similar conclusions.

Jan 1, 2004

By S. Sun

The equilibrium distribution of Cu, Fe and Ni between Cu-Ni-Fe mattes and Pt alloy was measured as functions of the sulphur partial pressure (pS2), oxygen partial pressure (pO2),temperature and Fe content of the matte. The distribution ratios of Cu, Fe and Ni between matte and alloy were independent of oxygen pressure when the pS2was fixed at 2.5x10-5atm and pO2was varied between 10-15and 10-12atm. The distribution ratio of Cu, Fe and Ni increased as the sulphur partial pressure increased. The Cu and Ni distribution ratios decreased with increasing temperature and the Fe distribution ratio increased slightly over the temperature range of1350?1500°C. For mattes where the proportions of Cu and Ni were kept constant, the distribution ratio of Cu increased as the Fe content in the matte increased. The Fe and Ni distribution appeared to be independent of the iron content in the matte and had a value of 1.2 and 1.6 respectively. The activity of Cu, Fe, Ni in the matte was calculated using a regular solution model for solid Pt-Fe-Ni-Cu alloy. The activity coefficient of Cu, Fe and Ni decreased as pO2and pS2increased.The activity coefficients also appeared to be independent of the Fe content and temperature over the range of 36 to 54 wt% iron and 1350 to 1500°C respectively. Keywords: activity, alloy, matte, thermodynamics

Jan 1, 2004