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By F. W. Jessen, G. F. Sears

Cavities in massive salt for the purpose of storage of liquid hydrocarbons have assumed a prominent position in recent years. This paper describes a program to facilitate leaching operations for the formation of specifically shaped storage cavities. Various forms and sizes of cavities may be possible through use of the techniques developed. INTRODUCTION The creation of large under ground storage facilities for natural gas and liquified petroleum gases has been practiced for many years. Use of cavities obtained through solution of salt for this purpose is a fairly new and novel approach, but has gained increasing importance due mainly to the economics of this type of mining operation opposed to hard rock mining or surface and pit storage.1 The idea of controlling the shape of any cavity dissolved from massive salt has not been a prime consideration of companies engaged in the formation of storage space. This has been due mainly to an insufficient knowledge of the mechanics of the leaching process and a dearth of published information dealing with both the desirability and ease of control possible for this type of operation. Two distinct advantages are readily ascertainable. From a stability standpoint (i.e., the ability of the completed cavity to withstand stress imposed by overburden pressure and lateral tectonic stresses) a controlled cavity may be generated which will yield the most favorable attitude to these external forces and remain in operable use for longer periods of time.2 A second advantage is that for a given volume, a sphere (which is one controlIed shape possible) represents the minimum surface area exposed. This may become more important in the future when dealing with refrigeration and product losses in underground cavities. The basic solution mining process, without regard for controlling the final shape, is quite simple in that the equipment and materials required to dissolve a cavity in a salt dome or layered salt section are a source of fresh water, a circulating pump, several strings of tubing and a means of disposal of the return brine. To add control measures involves the use of an inert blanket material above the position at which solution proceeds. Initially the annulus of the largest wash pipe is filled with this blanket down to the top of the proposed cavity. The bottom of the proposed cavity is determined by the depth of the original drilled hole or a blanking plug. The blanket material is added incrementally in stages and displaces the water in the enlarging cavity downward. Where the blanket material has displaced the water, no further solution takes place. The rate at which to add this controlling blanket material so as to be able to form specifically shaped cavities of any particular size is of considerable importance. THE PROBLEM It is desirable to have as much information as possible as to the behavior of the mining operation since visual observation obviously is impossible. It would be advantageous, for example, to have a step-by-step program showing how much salt is to be removed, at what rate and the time required. This type of program would facilitate procurement of surface equipment and provide for proper management of manpower requirements, as well as yield a host of intangible benefits. As mentioned earlier, only rule-of-thumb estimates were available until recently and made this type of pre-planned operation haphazardous at best. Recent work3-' has done much to clear up the ambiguities and inaccuracies attendant to solution mining of salt and has helped to place the operation on a more scientific basis. This study attempts to correlate much of the information thus far developed into a complete mining program; to extend the idea of controlled solution mining to include not only spheres, but solid conic sections of the ellipsoidal variety; and to refine the computation of the rate of removal of salt during the various stages of mining. Dommers3 and IIemson4 made extensive laboratory

Jan 1, 1967

A co-operative research project, combining Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) research scientists findings and company iron ore geologists' expertise, resulted in new concepts about the origins, distribution and complexitie of iron ores and their parent rocks (banded iron-formation or BIF) in the Hamersley Iron Province of Western Australia. Understanding these problems was important to the efficiency of exploration, development and ultimate mining of iron ores. This genetic model, based on a detailed mineralogic background, was modified by Mt Newman geologists to obtain a user oriented classification for practical application in the field.The proposed Pilbara Iron Ore Classification (PIOC) gives iron ore geologists a basis from which to understand, identify and record the various mineralogic and physical characteristics of the many genetically different ore types occurring within and between orebodies in the Pilbara. More definitive quality control over ore products can be achieved based on the detailed understanding of ore types which the PIOC allows, compared to current classifications which deal only with the physical nature of ores. Of equal importance, the classification remains sufficiently simple to enable owners, operators and buyers to achieve a basic appreciation of ore type variations.With little modification, it is believed the classification has applications beyond the Pilbara, to iron ore worldwide.

Jan 1, 1984

By S. C. Miller, R. D. Carter, H. G. Riley

A merhod based on theoretical considerations is presented for estimating srabilized performance of gas wells from data obtained from short-term flow tests. Calculated results are presented for II gas wells evaluated with four-to five-hour flow tests. For seven wells on which comparison war available, satisfactory agreement between measured and calculated performance was obfained. Although the final results are favorable, diflerences in flow capacity k,h obtained from flow tests conducted at different rates were observed. This inconsistency did not seriously affect the calculated results in the test wells. INTRODUCTION In order to negotiate the sale of gas from newly drilled gas wells and to plan otherwise for the orderly exploitation of gas reserves, it is necessary to predict the long-term withdrawal rates physically possible for each well. Since low permeability gas wells do not stabilize except after a lengthy period of flow, the operator is unable, without wasting large amounts of gas, to measure directly the stabilized performance prior to contracting for sale of the gas and connecting the well to a pipeline. This problem is not new, but is one which has recently received considerable attention because of the rising importance of natural gas in the economy and new emphasis on the development of gas reserves. Thus, a method is needed for estimating stabilized performance from information obtained from short-flow tests in which stabilized flow is not attained. Such short tests would be suitable for wells not connected to a pipeline since the tests require only small amounts of time, labor and production of gas. Other requirements of such a method are short calculation time and use of a model of the gas well and its reservoir drainage area which is as consistent as possible with present theoretical, experimental and field knowledge. The method presented herein was developed in an effort to meet these requirements. It has been named the "two-Row method". In addition to the section on the evelopment and description of the method, a description of field application of the method and a discussion of well test results are in- cluded. Finally, there is a section on an additional consideration prompted by some of the test results. The Appendix contains certain details of the derivation of the two-flow method and a sample calculation for Test Well 1. MATHEMATICAL DEVELOPMENT AND DESCRIPTION OF THE METHOD The method is based upon the following assumptions: (1) The system can be described as a finite cylindrical gas reservoir produced by a single cylindrical well located at the center of the reservoir. Flow is strictly radial. (2) Flow obeys Darcy's law except very near the well where a quadratic flow law is assumed. (3) The system is also characterized by a laminar flow skin factor. The use of a quadratic or turbulent flow term is more fully justified in Refs. 1 and 2. When such a system is opened at the wellbore to constant rate flow from an initial condition of uniform pressure distribution, the radius or drainage quickly passes through the non-Darcy flow and "skin effect" region imrnediately surrounding the well. After the drainage radius or "transient" has passed beyond this region and before it reaches the external boundary, drawdown can be expressed by'." After the drainage radius reaches the external boundary, stabilized flow exists and drawdown is given by'," Eqs. 1 and 2 form the basis for the method. The validity of these equations will now be examined in the light of some well test data previously available. It has been found by actual measurements on gas wells that the relationship between drawdown and flow rate, that is the performance curve, is closely approximated by' Eq. 3 is a straight line on log-log graph paper. Eq. 2 and, for any lixed value of time, Eq. 1 plot as a curve which is slightly concave upward on log-log graph

Jan 1, 1952

By B. L. Bessinger

Because of a, work stoppage at the Carlsbad plant, IMC faced the challenge of operating a 24-hour-a-day mine and plant with inexperienced maintenance and production crews. This is an underground mining operation, using the room-and-pillar mining- method. The mine was entirely, mechanized with conventional equipment, was hoisting an average of 13,539 tons off ore per 24 hours, and employed a, mine maintenance group of 100 men. The 100-man, mine maintenance group was equally divided between mechanics and electricians. In re-forming this maintenance group, two main objectives were to be achieved (1) a general upgrading off the intelligence level; and (2) the elimination of craft lines for greater flexibility.

Jan 1, 1966

By Chris Pritchard

Falconbridge Ltd., a major base metal producer in the Sudbury Basin of Ontario, Canada, identified a need to find a safe and cost effective replacement for welded-wire mesh used to support loose ground during underground nickel mining. Safer and lower operating costs are a must to maintain mine viability in lower base metal price environments. Stringent material strength parameters were put in place to determine if a spray-on liner was acceptable for testing and application trials. Falconbridge Ltd. took a methodical approach to the concept of a spray-on liner as a screen replacement proving the strength characteristics of the liner as a safe, cost effective, and suitable method of supporting ground. Materials testing was undertaken at Laurentian University to further understand the capacity of the material Laboratory and field tests indicated excellent adhesion and good tensile strength. Further, it maintains significant tensile strength even after elongation of over 25%. Compact, hydraulic mixing and spraying equipment have been developed and successfully utilized in the Fraser Mine of Falconbridge's Sudbury Operations Currently the Tekflex material has been approved as a wire-mesh replacement and is undergoing full-scale production trials in selected locations at Fraser Mine.

Jan 1, 1999

By Phillips RN

Semi-confined, trachy-andesite sills which overlie the German Creek Seam, within the critical tensile strain zone, form major groundwater hazards to longwall mining at the German Creek underground mines. The water contained in these aquifers is normally neutral, but highly saline. Techniques used to detect aquifers include routine air-lift pumping in exploratory drill holes, downhole geophysical and geological logging and upstage packer testing. Hydraulic constants are calculated from pump-out and pump-in test results. Hydraulic parameters for the calculation of mine inflow rates are determined from pump-out test results because these tests appear to be more representative of aquifer drainage during goat dewatering than pump- in testing. During mining of the first longwall block at Central Colliery, caving fractures intersected overlying aquifers after the longwall had retreated 40m, and mine water inflow rate rapidly increased from less than one litre/sec to 25 litres/sec. The amount of water pumped out of the mine during first panel extraction was 140 megalitres with drawdown occurring over an area of 168 hectares. In the Southern Colliery area approximately 324 megalitres of highly saline water which is actively stored in the Aquila Sill area will be pre-drained from six well points prior to longwall mining. With effective pre-drainage from surface drill holes, maximum inflow rate into the mine during initial goafing can be reduced from 165 litres/sec to about 45 litres/sec.

Jan 1, 1988

By Alan Bye

Sandsloot open pit is situated on the northern limb of the Bushveld Complex, 250 km north east of Johannesburg, South Africa. Sandsloot is currently the largest open pit platinum mine in the world and is one of six potential open pits in the area. The geotechnical strength properties of the Platreef have posed significant mining and processing challenges to the PPRust operation since inception in 1992. In order to optimise the whole business as opposed to isolated cost centres a mine to mill initiative was embarked upon in 1997. Initial work focussed on ore characterisation and an entire suite of data was collected for each rock type. This included mineralogy, geochemistry, geotechnical, blastability indices as well as metallurgical strength data. The second phase involved the clear definition of customer requirements, namely the optimum performance criteria for the plant and mining departments. This involved extensive field trials and data capture to measure the interaction and influence of the mine to mill value chain. Once the design targets were defined a 3D geotechnical model was constructed to ensure that the targets were consistently achieved. The model is very similar to an ore reserve model however it is populated with geotechnical, metallurgical and blast index data. Through software queries the appropriate blast powder factor for each mining block can be obtained thereby ensuring the correct fragmentation is blasted for the plant and mining operation. The initiative has delivered significant results showing improvements across the mine to mill value chain. These include increased loading rates, reduced electricity and crushing consumables as well as higher plant throughput. Additionally, the initiative has benefited both Brownfield and Greenfield projects on the PPRust operation.

Jan 1, 2005

By John B. Tieder

Arbitration is a legally recognized alternate litigation for the resolution of civil disputes. The parties agree, either before or after a dispute arises, to submit that dispute to an independent third party for resolution. The decision of that third party is binding on the parties. A decision of an arbitral tribunal, typically referred to as an "award," cannot be reviewed by a court except on very limited grounds, such as fraud. See, e.g., Va. Code 8.01-581.010. Indeed, an arbitral award is typically less subject to judicial review than the decision of a trial court, whose decisions are almost always subject to appellate review as a matter of right. Arbitration is typically the result of a contractual agreement between the parties to submit disputes to arbitration. On occasion, arbitration can be required by statute. For example, the California Department of Transportation requires the arbitration of all disputes arising under its contracts. Public Contract Code, Article 7.1 (§§10240-10240.13). There may be a question whether statutorily required arbitration is truly arbitration or an administrative law disputes resolution procedure. The significance of the difference is that the decisions of administrative law bodies are typically reviewable by a court of law as a matter of right while, as set forth above, arbitral awards are almost never reviewable.

Jan 1, 1988

By L. G. Huntley

Points out differences between the new, more liberal, law passed by the Colombian Congress and the law passed in 1919, gives a few facts about the pipe-line concession granted to a Canadian company, and tells of new drilling developments. PROBABLY the most important development in the Colombian oil situation during the past year was the passage by Congress of a new petroleum law, which went into effect Jan. 31, 1923. The principal points of interest in which this new law changes or improves the previous one are as follows: Law 120 of 1919 provided that one person or corporation could not acquire more than three exploitation zones. of 5000 ha. each, and royalties were based on a sliding scale, to wit: 6 per cent. royalty on lands 400 km., or more, from the ocean; 8 per cent. on lands 200 but not over 400 km. from the ocean, and 10 per cent. royalty on lands located less than 200 km. from the ocean. Rentals were fixed at 10 centavos per hectare for the first year; 20 centavos for the second year; 50 centavos, third year, and $1 (one peso) yearly thereafter. Under this law the term of the lease was fixed at 20 years and, at the discretion of the government, could be extended for 10 years additional. After the expiration of the lease and its corresponding extension, the machinery and other material placed upon the property would vest in the government. A bond of 20,000 pesos was also required of the lessee to guarantee faithful performance of his contract.

Jan 3, 1924

By P. Sklenicka

Remediation of the environmental (and social) disturbances caused by opencast brown coal mining in the past in north-west Bohemia isa priority for state environmental policy. In order to provide a concept for full restoration of land following disturbance by opencast mining, a special interdisciplinary project supported by a grant from the Czech Ministry of Environment was started in 2000. The initial stage of the project was intended to summarize and evaluate the findings and the works carried out in connection with various reclamation activities in the afflicted area over a period of more than 50 years. The main aims of the three-year project are to make use of the best available landscape environmental management knowledge in order to harmonize the ecological, aesthetic, productive and social functions of new valuable landscape, including the recovery of historical continuity and an understanding of ?landscape memory?. The basic landscape functions were assessed on two different scale levels. On a large scale, the relevant attributes were investigated over the whole area of the Sokolov brown coal basin (220 km2). The data and experience acquired were used to define large-scale guiding principles for the rehabilitation of a post-mining landscape. On a small scale, the basic characteristics and functions of the landscape were analysed in the Litov-Chlum model area (2 km2). The information derived from this analysis was used to formulate a small-scale approach for the rehabilitation of the model area and also to define general methodological principles. Keywords: rehabilitation, post-mining landscape, degraded landscape, non-productive priorities

Jan 1, 2004

By H. Hao

This paper outlines the development of a 2-D axisymmetric mathematical model to predict the evolution of temperature during the Direct Chill (DC) casting of AZ31 magnesium billets. Model predictions of temperature have been compared to measurements made on an industrial DC casting machine at Timminco Ltd, in Haley, Ontario. These measurements have been used to fine-tune the thermal boundary conditions employed in the mathematical model, The model, which is based on the commercial finite-element code ABAQUS, has been developed as part of a strategic project aimed at improving the DC casting process for light metals through a reduction in casting related defects and increased productivity.

Jan 1, 2004

By K. Prins

ONE of the more pressing problems faced by the coal industry today is the development of adequate means for meeting conservation laws, particularly those involving stream pollution, in various parts of the country. Discharge of dirty coal washery water into streams and rivers is almost universally frowned upon. Many states have enacted laws carrying heavy fines to curb the practice. The Prins stream-cleaner is one of the latest machines to enter the market. It is closely related to the cyclone thickener in principle. Eleven stream-cleaners are currently operating, ranging in size from 4 to 16 in. diam. In more recent installations the water enters directly in line and on a tangent with the impeller. The impeller consists of a vertical shaft up through a packing gland and bearings, and a V-belt pulley. The lower part is a tubing fastened to the shaft above, extending through the water intake compartment and provided with six vertical flat bars welded to the tubing. Portholes are situated in the upper end of the tubing, immediately below the point where shaft and tubing join together. The portholes are placed so that they are in open communication with the upper compartment of the stream-cleaner from which the processed water is discharged. The impeller is motor driven with a wide range vari-pitch drive employed between motor and impeller. The motor is mounted vertically, and the mounting provided with a vertical hinge allowing for needed adjustment of the wide range vari-pitch drive. The dirty coal washery water entering the machine under 20 lb psi pressure, flows from the compartment above the impeller, between the impeller blades, and is whirled around in the vertical section of the impeller enclosure. The speed of the impeller supplies centrifugal force and velocity required for separating suspended solids from water. The lower part of the machine consists of a cone, whose action is similar to other machines of the same type. The underflow discharge orifice is a cold rolled steel block machined to correspond with the cone angle and allows insertion of steel tubes of different diam. On 16 in. machines a 1 ¾ in. ID vertical discharge pipe is used. Provision is made for attaching a curved section of the same diam to the vertical pipe, to which, in turn, different lengths of horizontal pipe can be connected. Curved Pipe Advantageous It has been found that a curved pipe offers resistance to discharged material flow. In addition, the rotary motion of the underflow can be easily arrested in a curved pipe. Impeller speed of the 16 in. diam machine is provided from 400 to 800 rpm. A speed of about 474 rpm is suitable for maintenance of a constant underflow in coal slurry. In one installation 5x ¼ in. coal is cleaned in a Jeffrey Baum type washer at a 225 tons per hr rate. Washer installation is of the conventional type and a drag type sludge tank is used for water clarification purposes. Capacity of the water system, including the Baum washer, is about 40,000 gal. Before placing the stream-cleaner in operation, it was necessary to flush out the entire system every five days of two shift operations. The only time the system is drained now is for repair work on the sludge conveyor or the rig. The suction line of the stream-cleaner pump terminates in a number of small branch lines located at a depth of about 4 ft above the sludge conveyor. Each branch line extends the full width of the tank and is provided with four intake ports, each one with a funnel shaped inlet projecting downward. The arrangement provides an extensive pick-up area, for dirty water, and the inlets are arranged for a low rim velocity, preventing the taking in of coarse particles. The funnels are also arranged to extend up or down in the tank. They are set to pick up -60 mesh material exclusively.' The material is a high ash and high sulphur product and thus has to be disposed in the refuse conveyor. The underflow of the stream-cleaner is discharged on top of the washery refuse which is carried in a drag type horizontal conveyor, discharging into another refuse conveyor inclined at 30º with a short horizontal loading section. Some Disadvantages The impeller inherits certain disadvantages because of the nature of its construction. Additional moving parts make it subject to wear and maintenance costs. The advantage of being able to maintain a constant speed, however, to produce desired water velocity in the machine outweighs the drawbacks. Better separation between water and solids can be obtained by regulating time of residence of water through adjustment of valves in the intake and discharge lines. The amount of fines encountered during plant operation will vary because of higher or lower moisture in coal passing over fine coal vibrating screens. Even the amount of fines picked up by underground loading machines will be inconstant. Consequently, the percentage of solids will vary in water to be processed. The velocity in the feedlines to the slurry thickeners will fluctuate, with the required water velocity lacking. Another advantage advanced for the machine is its ability to operate on 15 to 25 lb line pressures at the water intake, reducing pump power required and pump maintenance.

Jan 1, 1952

By Charles H. Jacoby

Solution-mined salt cavities are being used for storage of liquid petroleum gas, natural gas, and other hydrocarbons; waste disposal or storage; storage of radioactive wastes; and as a surge vessel for air compressed by an electric utility during off-peak hours. Examples of each use are given. Other contemplated uses of salt cavities are noted.

Jan 1, 1973

By Franklin J. Stermole

INTRODUCTION Economic evaluation of an open pit mine is similar to the economic analysis of any major investment project in any industry. It requires (1) taking into account all of the costs and revenues that are estimated to be incurred over the economic life of the project; (2) crediting the project with all the tax savings and tax credits that will be realized over the project life from tax deductions and credits related to various project costs; (3) charging the project with all taxes to be paid on taxable income over the project life; and (4) properly accounting for the time value of money for all project costs, revenues, taxes, tax savings, and tax credits when making the overall project economic evaluation. These considerations must be taken into account for any valid method of economic analysis such as discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR) or net present value (NPV) analyses. All economic analyses fall into one of two categories. ( 1 ) comparison of income-producing alternatives, or (2) comparison of service-producing alternatives. The analysis of alternatives in either of these categories can be made by using correctly any of five basic economic evaluation approaches which are. ( 1 ) present value, annual value, (3) future value, (4) rate of return (ROR) , and (5 ) break-even analysis. Of these evaluation techniques, DCFROR and NPV analyses are used most widely for evaluating income-producing alternatives while present worth cost and equivalent annual cost analyses are used most often for the evaluation of service-producing alternatives. In this chapter income- producing alternative analysis is emphasized, so DCF- ROR and NPV are utilized for evaluating the case studies presented.

Jan 1, 1979

By G. G. Luther, C. E. Jackson

The relationship between hardenability and weldability has been mentioned many times. The ease of making a hardness survey has led to its wide use as a criterion of weldability and with a given class or series of steels for which the ductility under weld heat-treatment is known the test is entirely suitable. However, in studying a new steel the hardness survey is of less value, since it is based on the assumption that there is a correlation between hardness and ductility. Several attempts have been made to derive indices for weldabilityl and hardenability from the chemical analysis. In most of these proposals the effects of the different elements were considered to be additive, but recently Grossmann2 proposed a novel method of calculating the hardenability of a steel from its chemical composition. In the method proposed, a steel is considered as having a base hardenability due to its car- bon content and grain size, and this base hardenability is multiplied by a factor for each chemical element present. The final product is the hartlenability. The purpose of the present study is to point out the possible relationship between hardenability and the effect of welding on hardness and ductility for a number of plain carbon and low-alloy steels. The composition of the 25 steels reported in this paper as determined by chemical analysis is given in Table I. To eliminate the effect of variations in finishing temperatures, the 1/2-in. plates were normalized after heating for one hour at 1650°F. in a con-trolled-atmosphere furnace. In making comparative tests, it is essential to hold conditions as Constant as possible; hence full automatic weltling control was used. The electrodes, all supplied by

Jan 1, 1943

By S. C. Chelgani

The Thor lake deposit is a world class resource of rare earth (REE) metals and minerals in Canada. Development work to optimize a REE mineral recovery process flow sheet is underway, however, given the ore mineralogy; the developed reagent scheme is relatively complex. As part of a research project, micro flotation tests were conducted on a feed sample in order to examine factors affecting stream partitioning. SEM-EDX was performed to evaluate variability in grain composition between streams (concentrate and tails) and TOF-SIMS surface analysis was used to determine statistically significant differences in surface species particularly related to potential activation (or depression) of the examined mineral phases. SEM-EDX analysis reveal that the concentrate has a significantly higher proportion of REE bearing grains (carbonates and phosphates) relative to the tail (almost none were identified). Spectral fingerprinting by TOF-SIMS has allowed for the identification of all reagent species investigated. Reagent signal intensity discrimination on test stream mineral surfaces was observed by the TOF-SIMS analysis using reagents at plant concentration levels. TOF-SIMS analysis confirmed that REE bearing grains reporting to the concentrate are doing so in response to collector attachment whereas grains reporting to the tail are doing so in response to a lack of collector and/or in combination with the presence of the depressant. The surface analysis of gangue phases reveal a similar reagent discrimination; the signal intensity of collector species was significantly higher on the concentrate samples relative to the tails while depressant species were significantly enriched on the surface of the gangue phases in the tail samples. A detailed evaluation of the surface species representing the various reagents used in flotation scheme revealed a distinct competitive relationship between two of the reagents. The surface analysis identified that when used in concurrently, there appears to be a negative feedback resulting in a significant reduction in loading for several of the collectors on grains reporting to the concentrate. An evaluation of the effect of reagents on REE mineral in pilot plant is currently under way. Key words: Rare earth minerals, Flotation, Surface chemistry, TOF-SIMS, SEM-EDX

Feb 27, 2013

By J. T. Davies

Note: Melting techniques in the iron foundry by J. T. DAVIES* INTRODUCTION The selection of melting equipment for use in an iron foundry has for several years been the subject of numerous discussions, papers, and conferences. The controversy that has raged throughout the world has been brought about by the following factors: IF AC Symposium The 2nd IF AC Symposium on Automation in Mining, Mineral and Metal Processing will be held from 13th to 17th September, 1976, at the Carlton Hotel, Johannesburg. Advance registration takes place on 12th September, 1976. World phosphates The Minerals Bureau of the Department of Mines has released the second publication in its series of reports on the economic aspects of minerals that are of particular importance to South Africa.

Jan 7, 1976

By Majid Sarkari, Hossein Atashi, Farhad Fazlollahi

"The aim of this research work was to prepare the efficient catalyst to purify pollutant output gases such as SO2 , NO2 and CO. This catalyst, lanthanum cobaltat (LaCo03) was prepared by the proper method in the analysis laboratory of Tabriz Oil .The first materials were chosen through calcination operation and temperatures of operation related to the Tamman temperature, therefore the basis for the first material of catalyst was nitrate and aqueous and since we had no availability to lanthanum nitrate, lanthanum oxide was used to prepare the nitrate one. Before all else, the first materials of catalyst were mixed together with the equal mole proportions and then, at the lower and upper temperatures of Tanunan temperature, calcination operation was carried out. To determine the molecular structure, the XRD analysis was utilized and specified that prepared lanthanum cobaltat was sixth aqueous and had the crystal structure type Triclinic.IntroductionLaCo03 has presented a vast interest because of its special electrical, magnetic and catalytic properties [1-4]. The catalyst LaCo03 can be prepared by means of several methods such as spray drying, freeze drying and also co-precipitation [5-12]. Some methods including hydrothermal, sol gel and citrate [13] This material usually has been synthesized by ceramic method and certainly the high temperature for the calcination operation. [14]. Lanthanum catalysts have been researched because of having such an active state [15]. One of the unique properties of this catalyst is the simultaneous conversion of pollutant elements. Nowadays CO oxidation has important applications in environment protection, such as indoor air cleaning and automotive exhaust treatment. LaCoO3 is one of the most important catalysts for CO oxidation."

Jan 1, 2013

By Nelson R. Shaffer

Biotechnology has become a household word of the nineties, and it is expected to become as important in the next century as the computer is in the present. Numerous books and articles portray biotechnology developments as nothing less than a scientific revolution. Almost everywhere one looks new biotechnical breakthroughs are being reported that offer almost limitless opportunities to harness the force of living things to produce materials and manipulate their properties. Biotechnology has been broadly defined as any applications of biological organisms, systems, or processes to manufacturing and service industries. This seemingly new technology is, in fact, one of mankind's oldest scientific activities (Table l), which has been recently revolutionized by techniques of genetic engineering that arose out of basic research in biology, biochemistry, genetics, and information sciences. From fields as old as agriculture and medicine to those as new as monoclonal anti-bodies, transgenic plants, or biocomputers are encompassed by biotechnology. Like most human endeavors, industrial minerals play critical roles in biotechnology. In addition biotechnology holds real potential to improve extraction and beneficiation of certain industrial minerals themselves. BIOTECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW Companies using established biotechnical techniques make up large and diverse groups such as agriculture, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. The massive US Pharmacopia (Anon., 1990a) provides detailed specifications for minerals used in medicines. Alumina, zirconia, apatite, and bioactive glass have seen service as implant materials (Williams, 1990) and new uses for minerals in health sciences are being actively researched. Agriculture produced $361 billion worth of food and drink during 1991 in the United States; organic chemicals, pharmaceuticals, and enzymes accounted for $68, $59, and $42 billion, respectively (Anon., 1992a). It is not possible to separate the contributions of industrial minerals to biotechnical products, but they represent a very large and rapidly growing new field of uses. The new biotechnology has nearly 300 small companies, plus 15 established companies with 742 biotechnology-related firms (Dibner, 1991b). Revenues exceeded $2 billion in 1990 and are expected to grow to $50 billion by 2000 (Anon., 1992c), with worldwide sales exceeding $100 billion (Burrill and Roberts, 1992). Federal research amounted to $3.4 billion in 1990 (Anon., 1992b). The United States is the world leader in biotechnology, but other countries have large, well-funded programs. Despite debate about safety, obstacles to new biotechnology products are declining (Embers, 1992, Gibbons, 1991). Fifteen biotechnology drugs valued at $1.2 billion (Thayer, 1991a) are on the market, and more than 100 are in various stages of testing (Edington, 1992). Many diagnostic tests are also in use or development (Demain, 1983, Anon., 1992). Large scale efforts to produce or transform important chemicals are also underway (Ng et al., 1983, Hinman, 1991), and research into geologic uses of biotechnology has begun. Much has been published about microbial mining, oil recovery, desulfurization, bioremediation, and other geologic aspects of biotechnology, but this chapter is the first attempt to explore interactions of biotechnology and industrial minerals. This chapter examines uses of minerals in biotechnology; how biotechnology can be used to discover, recover, and beneficiate industrial minerals; and speculates on some potential, but as yet untried uses. Definitions What exactly does the word biotechnology mean? Bud (1989) states that the first use of the term was by Karl Ereky in 1919 to cover the interaction of biology and technology, and in 1933 the term was used in Nature. After citing seven different definitions, Smith (1988) concludes that biotechnology is a series of enabling technologies involving practical applications of organisms or their subcellular components to manufacturing and service industries or to environmental management. Walker and Cox (1988) suggest a definition of "the practical applications of biological systems to the manufacturing and service industries and to the management of the environment." Primrose (1991) says that it is "the commercial exploitation of living organisms or their components." There is essentially an older broad use of the term and a new use. The US Office of Technology Assessment (Anon., 1984) uses a broad definition that includes any technique that uses living organisms (or parts of organisms) to make or modify products, to improve plants or animals, or to develop micro-organisms for specific uses. Definitions are different, but they all have several fundamental elements that include the control, management, or manipulation of living things for commercial, industrial, or useful ends. While such a definition encompasses all of agriculture in practice the "new" biotechnology is restricted to processes involving microorganisms-plant and animal cells, or enzymes. Many consider biotechnology to be recent, but it is one of our oldest technologies as evidenced by the prehistoric origin of brewing, cheese-making, and other techniques. [Table 1] gives some of the important developments in the history of biotechnology. Smith (1988) breaks down historical developments of biotechnology into four phases: 1) prehistoric with no understanding of underlying processes; 2) nonsterile processes; 3) sterile processes after 1940; and 4) genetic and recombinant DNA technology deliberate design of special organisms or processes.

Jan 1, 1994