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By F. D. Fox

The Flambeau and Ridgeway Mines, both owned and operated by wholly owned subsidiaries of Kennecott Minerals Company, were located very close to populated areas having initial concerns about health, safety and the environment. The success of both operations depended upon developing a framework of community support and enhancing sustainable development opportunities throughout the entire life cycle of the mining operations to address these concerns. The protection of the Flambeau River was the cornerstone of the Flambeau Mine’s success. The highest priority for the Ridgeway Mine was to ensure long-term physical, chemical and ecological stability of the reclaimed mine site. Both of these goals have been achieved and are discussed in this paper, which highlights Kennecott Minerals Company’s integration of sustainable development principles into its business decision-making and management processes.

Jan 1, 2003

By Johannes Wageneder

As a reaction to the fire accidents in tunnels in Europe Designers nowadays have to demonstrate the integrity of underground structures such as metro systems, railway and road tunnels in case of fire load wherever as a consequence of a lining collapse surface infrastructures or residential areas could be affected. To respond to this FLAMDOCS allows to calculate the stability of reinforced concrete structures during fire load for a series of prede?ned time steps. Elementary theories of non linear material properties and reinforced concrete structures are used.

Jan 1, 2003

By J. W. Matousek

In the flash smelting of copper sulfide concentrates, the course of reactions from the burner tip, through flame "burn-out" (the point of oxygen depletion), to settled matte and slag is of particular interest in understanding the mechanisms of the process. Numerous reaction sets can be proposed to describe the chemical changes that might be taking place, but from outside the furnace no one set offers an obvious advantage in explaining the actual processes involved. Only a combination of mathematical modeling and flame and bath sampling can achieve this result. This paper shows that flash smelting, while still reasonably orderly, is a more complex process than suggested by the technical literature.

Jan 1, 1993

By M. A. Llavona

In Spain, as in many countries, the gold content of jewellery must be officially hallmarked. The official methods of assay are gravimetnc cupellation (a method which is highly accurate but both time and sample consuming), potentiometry, gravimetry and volumetry. In this paper, a procedure for measuring gold by flame atomic absorption in jewellery samples is described. The method is based on the acid digestion of a 40 mg sample. The quantity of aqua regia necessary for dissolving the gold, the ideal weight of a sample in order that the error may be minimal, the effect of the acids employed, the type of material used for its storage, and the necessity of employing a buffer to avoid the ionization of the solution are described. The method proposed is simple, highly accurate and causes little damage to the jewellery.

Jan 1, 1999

Efficiently clear ice and frozen materials from ore-handling equipment. Approach Compressed air-propane torches that develop a high energy flame jet were used instead of ordinary propane torches. How it Works A high velocity high temperature stream of gases impinges on the ice and frozen materials to both melt and blast them away. This hot gas jet is at 3,000°F temperature and moving at 3,000 feet per second. In the photograph below, the jet is being used to clear frozen taconite from a grizzly. The functions of the compressed air-propane torch are as follows. The air heater assembly, which is mounted on a wand, con-

Jan 1, 1980

By Michael J. Sapko, Robert A. Cortese

A flame powered trigger device has been developed to explosively activate suppression barriers to quench gas and coal dust explosions. The important feature of the device is a silicon solar panel, which collects 0.3 p to 1.1 D wavelength radiation from the developing explosion, and generates electrical energy to initiate a detonator, which in turn causes the rapid explosive release of an extinguishing agent into the advancing flame front. Solar panels that are rated to produce 20 w of electrical power when exposed to the sun light are producing about 200 w when exposed to full-scale dust explosion propagating in the U.S. Bureau of Mines' Lake Lynn Experimental Mine. The solar panel is electrically isolated from the detonator by a pressure sensitive switch until the arrival of the precursor pressure pulse, which always precedes a deflagration. This combination of pressure arming and flame powered photo generator prevents false barrier activation and requires no external power supply.

Jan 1, 1991

By G. G. Bowser

Introduction Flame shots are of very infrequent occurrence in the coal mines of Nova Scotia. Probably not more than one is recorded in three months. Many shot-firers have never experienced one, and many never will. As a consequence, although all such occurrences are very carefully investigated, information concerning the cause of flame shots is somewhat meagre. In the course of the years, however, something has been learned of the practices and conditions that are responsible for them. During the past ten? years, over seventeen million shots were fired in the coal mines of Nova Scotia and only fifty-two faulty shots were reported or investigated during that time. In thirty-nine of these, flames were reported; in five, sparks only; and in eight, smoke only. In eight of these occurrences, unburned explosive was found after firing. In one of these eight, flame was seen in the back part of the hole, and an accompanying hissing sound pointed to burning explosive. In four of them, there was no evidence that gas was not ignited. All samples of explosives from these faulty shots which were submitted for analysis were found to be normal, except two, in 1937, which contained excessive moisture. These two samples were from two following shots in the same room on the same day. The initial cause of trouble with all eight shots was one or several of the following: explosives in poor condition, separation of cartridges, incorrect priming, shot hole in poor condition or not properly cleaned. In the case of sixteen or seventeen of the thirty-nine shots which flamed, data are insufficient for conclusions to be drawn as to the cause of the flame.

Jan 1, 1947

By Carleton Ellis

(Presented at a meeting of the New York Local Section of the Institute, Apr. 12, 1912.) I. INTRODUCTION. THE problem of the influence of hot surfaces upon gaseous combustion is one which, from a purely scientific stand-point, has engaged, for many years past, the attention of Prof. William A. Bone, of Leeds University and the Imperial College, London; and as his recent work has been the direct outcome of earlier scientific investigation, it will be appropriate, by way of introduction, to review briefly the present position of science with respect to this important subject, as stated by Professor Bone. One may perhaps best arrive at an understanding of the term " ?flameless " or " surface " combustion by considering certain facts which differentiate it from the more familiar processes of combustion as they occur in ordinary flames. All hot surfaces have an accelerating influence upon chemical changes in gaseous systems. If, at any temperature, a gaseous system, A, tends to pass over into another system, B, contact with a solid at the same temperature will accelerate the process. To take a very simple example, if a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in their combining proportions (electrolytic gas) were maintained in an inclosure with smooth glass walls at a temperature of, say, 450° C., there would certainly be a tendency to form steam, but the rate of change would be negligibly small. If, however, there were brought into the system some porous solid material at the same temperature, so that a large surface was exposed to the gases, the rate of change would at once be rapidly accelerated in the layer of gas immediately in contact with the hot surface. Steam, the product, would diffuse outward from the surface, and the supplies of hydrogen and oxygen at the surface would be renewed by diffusion inward. Thus combustion would proceed heterogene-

Sep 1, 1912

By Michael G. Zabetakis

THIS is a summary of the available limit of flammability, autoignition, and burning-rate data for more than 200 combustible gases and vapors in air and other oxidants, as well as of empirical rules and graphs that can be used to predict similar data for thousands of other combustibles under a variety of environmental conditions. Specific data are presented on the paraffinic, unsaturated, aromatic, and alicyclic hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, and sulfur compounds, and an assortment of fuels, fuel blends, hydraulic fluids, engine oils, and miscellaneous combustible gases and vapors.

Jan 1, 1965

By Kris Chatrathi, John E. Going, Kenneth L. Cashdollar

Two types of flammability limits have been measured for various dusts in the Fike 1-m3 (1000-L) chamber and in the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) 20-L chamber. The first limit is the minimum explosible concentration (MEC), which was measured at several ignition energies. In addition to the three dusts studied previously (bituminous coal, anthracite coal, and gilsonite), this work continues the effort by adding three additional dusts: RoRo93, lycopodium, and iron powder. These materials were chosen to extend the testing to non-coal materials as well as to a metallic dust. The new MEC data corroborate the previous observations that very strong ignitors can overdrive the ignition in the smaller 20-L chamber. Recommendations are given in regard to appropriate ignition energies to be used in the two chambers. The study also considered the other limiting component, oxygen. Limiting oxygen concentration (LOC) testing was performed in the same 20-L and 1-m3 vessels for gilsonite, bituminous coal, RoRo93, and aluminum dusts. The objective was to establish the protocol for testing at different volumes. A limited investigation was made into overdriving in the 20-L vessel. The LOC results tended to show slightly lower results for the smaller test volume. The results indicated that overdriving could occur and that ignition energies of 2.5 kJ in the 20-L vessel would yield comparable results to those in the 1- m3 vessel using 10.0 kJ. The studies also illustrate the importance of dust concentration on LOC determinations.

By J. Budac, R. Kofluk, D. Belton, M. Sjogren

A series of tests were performed to determine the flammability limits of mixtures of oxygen, ammonia, steam and nitrogen, over a solution, in a sealed autoclave. The partial pressures of ammonia and oxygen in the vapour space were varied by adjusting the character of the solution and by adjusting the oxygen concentration in the oxidant gas respectively. The data shows that flammable conditions can be minimized by controlling the operating temperature, reducing the ammonia content in the solution, increasing the concentrations of Ni, Cu and Zn in solution and keeping the % oxygen in the gas phase less than 15.5. Observations were also made that suggest that the presence of an aerosol in the vapour space may hinder ignition.

Jan 1, 2004

By Sinisa M. Djordjevic, Isaac A. Zlochower, Kevin J. Liekhus, Cindy A. Loehr, Kenneth L. Cashdollar

An experimental program was conducted to evaluate the accuracy of some current methods for predicting the flammability of gas mixtures containing hydrogen and flammable or nonflammable volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in air The specific VOCs tested were toluene, 1,2-dichloroethane, 2-butanone, and carbon tetrachloride. The lower flammability limits (LFLs) of gas mixtures containing equal molar quantities of the components were determined in a 19.4-1 laboratory flammability chamber using a strong spark ignition source and a pressure criterion for flammability. All but one of the LFL values for the individual components were in agreement with earlier literature values. However, the LFL of l,2-dichlorocthane was found to be significantly lower than the range of values reported for previous determinations in smaller chambers. Two methods for calculating the LFL of mixtures were considered. The Group Factor (atomic) Contribution Method was determined to he generally more accurate than the LeChatelier Method for estimating the LFL of the gas mixtures reported here, although the LeChatelier Method was usually more conservative. The Group Factor Method predicted higher values (nonconservative) for the LFLs of several mixtures than were experimentally measured. For the case of a mixture of hydrogen and carbon tetrachloride, the Group Method estimation of the LFL was seriously in error.

By Richard A. Thomas, Isaac A. Zlochower, Gregory M. Green, Kenneth L. Cashdollar, Martin Hertzberg

This paper reports the results of flammability studies for methane, propane. hydrogen, and deuterium gases in air conducted by the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory. Knowledge of the explosion hazards of these gases is important to the coal mining industry and to other industries that produce or use flammable gases. The experimental research was conducted in 20 L and 120 L closed explosion chambers under both quiescent and turbulent conditions, using both electric spark and pyrotechnic ignition sources. The data reported here generally confirm the data of previous investigators, but they are more comprehensive than those reported previously. The results illustrate the complications associated with buoyancy, turbulence, selective diffusion, and ignitor strength versus chamber size. Although the lower flammable limits (LFLs) are well defined for methane (CH,) and Propane (CA), the LFLs for hydrogen (HZ) and its heavier isotope deuterium (D2) are much more dependent on the limit criterion chosen. A similar behavior is observed for the upper flammable limit of propane. The data presented include lower and upper flammable limits, maximum pressures, and maximum rates of pressure rise. The rates of pressure rise, even when normalized by the cube root of the chamber volume (V 1/3), are shown to be sensitive to chamber size.

By Richard A. Thomas, Charles D. Litton, Kenneth E. Mura, Harry C. Verakis

Experiments were undertaken to evaluate the flammability of typical noise abatement materials used to line the cab interior of mobile mining equipment. The experiments were conducted using three different experimental configurations: 1. A ventilated tunnel test. 2. A full-size cab test where the interior surfaces were lined with the sample material and then ignited near the floor using a methane-air burner. 3. Standard ASTM E-162 tests using a radiant panel test apparatus. This paper describes the tests and presents the results obtained for 15 to 20 different materials of various chemical compositions and thickness. With one exception, materials that did not exhibit flame spread in the tunnel test also performed well in the full-scale cab test. All materials that had passed only a small-scale flammability test, such as SAE J369, failed dramatically in all three of the above test configurations. With one exception, all materials that performed well in the full-scale cab test had flame spread indices < 25, based upon the ASTM E-162 results. The lone exception had an ASTM E-162 flame spread index of 68. With regard to samples that failed the full-scale cab test, the carbon monoxide levels within the cab reached lethal concentrations in the range of 1.8% to 3.8% within 2 minutes from ignition of the sample—dramatically illustrating the severe fire environment that can result within the cab space.

By James H. Rowland

The Mine Improvement and New Emergency Response Act of 2006 (MINER ACT) established a Technical Study Panel (The Panel) to provide recommendations on the utilization of belt air and new technology that may be available for increasing the fire resistance properties of conveyor belt used in underground coal mines. The Panel Report recommended use of the Belt Evaluation Laboratory Test (BELT) as the method for testing and approval of flame resistant conveyor belts used in underground coal mines. The research conducted to establish the correlation of the BELT with large-scale belt fire flammability tests was done using 36- to 42-in wide conveyor belt. Due to today?s coal haulage capacity, the mining industry is using 72-in and wider conveyor belts. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted a study to determine if the BELT will also qualify wider belts as fire resistant for use in underground coal mines. This paper describes the results of recent experiments comparing results from using the BELT and the large-scale tests for six different belts.

Jan 1, 2010

By A. C. Smith, J. H. Rowland III

The Mine Improvement and New Emergency Response Act of 2006 (MINER Act) established a Technical study panel (the Panel) to provide recommendations on the utilization of belt air and new technology that may be available for increasing the fire resistance properties of conveyor belt used in underground coal mines. The Panel Report recommended use of the belt evaluation laboratory test (BELT) as the method for testing and approval of flame resistant conveyor belts used in underground coal mines. The research conducted to establish the correlation of the BELT with large-scale belt fire flammability tests was done using 91 - 107 cm (36- to 42-in.) wide conveyor belt. Due to today’s coal haulage capacity, the mining industry is using 183 cm (72 in.) and wider conveyor belts. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted a study to determine if the BELT will also qualify wider belts as fire resistant for use in underground coal mines. This paper describes the results of recent experiments comparing results from using the BELT and the large-scale tests for six different belts.

Jan 1, 2011

By Michael Casson

With the mining industry changing rapidly due to mergers, acquisitions and fluctuating market pricing, today?s market for coal, minerals, ores and aggregates demands electrical apparatus that perform every time with maximum efficiency and with consideration for personnel safety. This is especially true in existing mining operations where every payload counts. Draglines are the workhorses of surface mining operations, and reliable and efficient operation is absolutely critical to success. However, the inherent disadvantages of using dc motors and motor-generator (MG) sets can significantly impact productivity and return on investment (ROI).

Jan 1, 2013

By W. G. Davenport

The flash furnace is used for smelting concentrate to (i) high-Cu matte and (ii) molten metallic copper. It is also used for converting solidified/crushed matte to molten metallic copper. This is flash converting. It consists (Table 20.1, Fig. 20.1) of: (a)tapping molten 65 to 72% Cu matte from a flash smelting furnace (b) granulating the molten matte to ?1/2 mm particles in a 103 m3/hour water torrent (c) crushing the granulated matte to 50 µm in a vertical roller mill (d)drying the crushed matte (e) feeding the dry particulate matte to a second flash furnace for oxidation converting to molten copper. In 2000, flash converting is being used by Kennecott Utah Copper (George, et al; 1995; Newman et al, 1998, 1999a,b). A second installation is being designed for the Chuquicamata smelter (www.outokumpu.com [October 12, 2000]), The potential uses of flash converting are: (a) as the second half of a flash smelting/flash converting coppermaking sequence (b) as a continuous converting alternative to batch submerged tuyere converting. This chapter uses our flash furnace matrix to determine the %O2-in-blast, industrial oxygen and oil requirements for converting solidified 65% and 72% Cu matte to molten copper. It then discusses choice of feed matte grade and other aspects of the process.

Jan 1, 2001

In the new flowsheet for Inco Limited&apos;s S02, Abatement Project at the Copper Cliff, Ontario operations, a copper/nickel sulphide flotation concentrate will be flash smelted, then converted to Bessemer matte. As in current practice, this will be slow-cooled and separated into components by magnetic separation and flotation. The copper content will emerge as a chalcocite concentrate (impure Cu2S), containing some nickel. This copper sulphide will be converted to copper metal.

Jan 1, 1993

By Elli Miettinen, Markku Lahtinen, Ilkka Kojo

"The recent trends of decreasing energy consumption and environmental emissions and utilization of economies of scale are strong drivers favoring continuous copper converting processes. Flash Converting benefits from low off-gas volumes and low investment and operational costs for off-gas treatment. Separate matte and blister furnaces allow the adaptation to concentrate quality changes and flexibility in layout and maintenance.The stationary blister copper bath in Flash Converting furnace is less aggressive to the furnace linings than agitated processes, resulting in low refractory consumption, long campaign life and high on-line availability.Copper Flash Converting has been successfully applied in Kennecott with a campaign life now exceeding five years. A second FCF was started at Xiangguang Copper in China in 2007. The process itself is proven, as its features are similar to those in FSF, Direct-to-Blister and Direct Outotec Nickel Flash Smelting (DON), with one significant difference: it is the easiest of all to operate.The paper presents differences between continuous Flash Converting and conventional converting based on recent experiences and studies."

Jan 1, 2009