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By D. W. Smith, Robert F. Mehl

It has been shown by numerous studies that the orientations of new metal crystals are determined by the orientations of the crystals in the original matrix, whether these new crystals are formed by recrystalliza-tion, by precipitation from solid solutions, or by transitions in the solid state. The orientations of crystals formed by recrystallization of cold-worked metals that bear preferred orientations are occasionally simply related to the initial preferred orientation; often, however, the relationship is not simple, but complicated and obscure in origin.1 The orientations of crystals formed by precipitation from solid solutions have been shown by many studies in this and other countries to be determined by the orientation of the crystals of the solid solution stable at the higher temperatures, though here again complicated cases have been found and no general theory is available.2 Related to this latter class are the relationships found in crystals formed by suppressed transforma-

Jan 1, 1935

By Howard A. Smith

Of late considerable experimental and theoretical interest has been shown in the rates of transformation from a single phase, usually a supercooled solid solution, into one or more phases. Such reactions may involve both diffusion and transformation of the major constituent, as in iron alloys, or it may simply involve diffusion, as in superstructure formation and in age-hardening systems. Most of the work has been confined to ferrous alloy1-9† although two investigations have been made on copper alloys10*". That such work may be of considerable practical importance has been demonstrated by Bain12, by the workers at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Eisen-for~chung'13, 14, and by the everyday use of precipitation and age-hardening principles15. Experiments in this country have generally followed Davenport and Bain's technique of rapid supercooling followed by isothermal treatment. In Germany16, 17 the work has been extended to the study of the influence of accurately controlled and measured rates of cooling. The work on steel indicates that there are two subcritical temperature ranges where reaction starts sooner after quenching and proceeds at a more rapid rate than at other temperatures. At suberitical temperatures above Ar" (temperature of martensite formation) where reaction is dependent upon atomic migration there is a period of time of which the length depends upon the alloy content and the temperature, before which no reaction has been detected. Davenport and Bain' find that different sorts of atoms in solid solution in gamma iron affect the length of this " prereaction" period differently, manganese probably being the most effective in lengthening it. It is very difficult to believe that nothing occurs within these "prereaction" regions, for if this were so there is no reason why any reaction at all should be observed. In the light of experimental facts and theoretical considerations it is certainly

Jan 1, 1935

By Earl W. Palmer, Cyril Stanley Smith

A study of the precipitation-hardening of copper steels1 led the authors to investigate malleable iron containing copper, for the low-carbon ferritic matrix in malleable iron should lend itself admirably to precipitation-hardening. It was soon found that in addition to rendering malleable iron susceptible to improvement by precipitation-hardening treatments, copper has another potentially useful effect as an accelerator of graphitization. Brief mention of these effects was given in a general paper by Lorig and one of the present authors2; the present paper gives further details on the graphitization and precipitation-hardening effects only. After the completion of this work a paper by L. Lykkin3 appeared, confirming the authors' conclusions regarding graphitization. Material Used After some preliminary heats had been made in the laboratory to determine the effect of copper, several castings from commercial air-furnace heats were obtained, and data from these alone are given here. Part of the metal was poured directly and part was treated in the ladle with the desired amount of copper before pouring. Green-sand molds were used, each holding two tensile test pieces of the form adopted by the Malleable Iron Research Institute, or two bars for graphitization studies, 5/8 in, in diameter and 9 in. long, fed through two enlarged sections equidistant from the middle and ends of the bars. Risers of suitable size insured sound castings. Tensile tests were made on the castings after commercial mallealleizing and after special heat treatments to be described. The analyses of the white irons are given in Table 1.

Jan 1, 1935

By John T. Norton

FoR many years the copper-bearing steels have been of considerable interest to the metallurgist because of their corrosion-resistant properties. More recently the discovery of their definite age-hardening characteristics has focused attention on them again. In a recent paper, Smith and Palmer(l)† have given an admirable description of the behavior of a considerable number of steels of this type and a study of their results suggests two questions of a more or less fundamental sort. In the first place, it has been plainly shown that the hardening effect of added copper does not increase up to the maximum solubility of copper in iron as given by earlier investigators, but reaches its greatest value considerably below this point. This fact suggests that either the solubility is not so great as previous investigators have stated, or that the age-hardening mechanism is not the simple precipitation phenomenon that has been postulated. In the second place, the nature of the aging mechanism in this particular system should be determined. Recent developments in the study of age-hardening processes have shown that the increase of hardness is often, but not always, accompanied by precipitation and the action of a particular system is not predictable on the basis of its components or type of phase diagram. It would be of considerable interest to study the aging of the iron-rich iron-copper alloys in detail. One would like to know whether the aging mechanism is different at high and low aging temperatures, and whether the extreme sluggishness of the system may perhaps represent some new type of aging process. The experiments to be described were carried out in an endeavor to answer these questions. Obviously, in such experiments it is important to confine the hardening effect to the single element, copper, so that iron and copper of high purity must be used in the preparation of specimens. An observation of lattice changes during the aging process, correlated with the hardness changes, seems to be the best available method of

Jan 1, 1935

By N. A. Zeigler, T. D. Yensen

Aging is a term that connotes a slow change in properties under ordinary operating conditions. It can be accelerated by increasing the temperature and by mechanical straining. The magnetic properties of iron and some of its alloys have for many years been known to be subject to such a change. But the cause of the change was not recognized until a few years ago after mechanical age-hardening in non-ferrous alloys of the "duralumin" type had been definitely shown, by means of solid solubility curves, changes in electrical resistance and microanalysis, to be caused by slow precipitation of one or more constituents from the solid solution. The similarity between the solid solubility curves of such alloys (Fig. 1) and those for iron-nitrogen (Fig. 2) and iron-carbon alloys (Fig. 3) below the A1 transformation point suggested at once that magnetic aging of iron might be caused by a similar process; namely, by the slow precipitation of carbon and nitrogen in the form of Fe4N and Fe3C at ordinary temperatures because of a cooling rate that had been too rapid to permit complete precipitation according to equilibrium conditions. This suggestion has since been amply confirmed, particularly by the comprehensive work of Köster1 on the effect of nitrogen and carbon. Typical curves are shown in Fig. 4 for the relationship between aging temperature and coercive force. Previous to the establishment of the precipitation-hardening theory it was thought that the effect of nonmetallic elements like C, N, O, etc., on the magnetic properties of iron was greatest when these elements were retained in solid solution, atomically dispersed throughout the interstitial spaces of the iron lattice2. Based on the theory that magnetic properties are intimately connected with the regularity of the lattice, it now follows quite logically that a greater effect on this regularity may be obtained when the above impurities are precipitated as very fine particles of Fe3C, Fe4N, FeO, etc., more or less uniformly dispersed within the grains. But if this is the case, it follows also that there must exist a relationship between the size

Jan 1, 1935

By A. A. Scheil, S. I. Hoyt

In technological studies on steel considerable emphasis has been placed on the identification of the foreign inclusions, testimony of which is adequately given in the metallographic literature covering methods for their identification. The outstanding accomplishment in this field is the scheme devised by Campbell, Comstock and Wohrman for identifying various oxides, sulfides, silicates and other constituents by systematic etching tests and microscopic examination.' The time involved in carrying out this procedure has led to attempts to secure quicker methods, or at least to shorten the time required to secure essential information. An example of this is the use of dark field illuminatin,2 but when this was tried out by the authors it was found that cavities and pits on the polished surface appeared bright on a dark field and could not be distinguished from small glassy inclusions. Still another means is the Leitz Ultropak, an instrument equipped with optical units for the illumination of the specimen by reflected light to secure an effect similar to dark field illumination. The structures are made visible in exceedingly sharp details by utilizing the inherent properties of the samples, such as refractive index, absorption coefficients and reflection powers. We have had no experience with the Ultropak, but a recent paper by Benedicks and Löfquist3 describes methods for determining the refractive index of (Fe, Mn) O and MnS by the use of this equipment. Presumably this method would be subject to about the same limitations as dark field illumination, though the, feature added by Benedicks and Löfquist appears to offer great promise in inclusion identification.

Jan 1, 1935

By C. S. Blair

The development of a geological department as an integral part of the Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. in the Birmingham district, Alabama, in 1908 was an innovation probably unique for any mining organization south of the Ohio River. At that time a few of the oil companies were starting geological departments, but there were no geologists among the larger industrial organizations. The Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. had been a substantial producer of pig iron for many years and was just getting a start in the manufacture of steel products from the pig iron. It had large acreages of coal land, ore land and timber land, but there was lacking the detailed knowledge of the possible mineral resources of much of its territory, and this territory at that time covered an area in the neighborhood of 500,000 acres in the states of Alabama, Tennessee and Georgia. Those responsible for the operations of the mining properties, not being familiar with the kind of help that might be expected from geologic work, were decidedly skeptical of the utility of the work. Therefore it was necessary to develop cooperation with the mining organization, by not infringing upon its functions, and by developing the work in such a manner as to demonstrate to the mining department its practical utility. In the first instance the man responsible for a mining operation is apt to assume the attitude that the geologist is a blockader, because the geologist, unfortunately, is obliged to point out difficulties in the carrying out of mining operations in the way originally planned. He points out the dangers of mining out one coal or metal seam at the ultimate expense of an upper or lower seam, and he develops structural features, such as faults and folds, which call to the attention of the mining operator difficulties in his future operations, which the latter had not anticipated. Eventually, however, the value of having these data became apparent to the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Co., and the operators not only welcomed the geological work and cooperated fully in its acquisition of essential information, but reached the point of asking assistance and advice; and complete coordination of the two activities has existed for many years.

Jan 1, 1935

By Guillermo Zuloaga

The iron deposits of the Imataca Range of Venezuela, which occur along the Orinoco River, in the northern border of the Guayana Highlands, have lately attracted attention on account of their economic possibilities. Many deposits occur in this area; some of slight economic importance and others that may rank with the largest masses of high-grade iron ore of the world. The geology and the character of the ores seem to be remarkably similar to those of the large iron deposits of Brazil. In the investigation of the Venezuelan deposits a definite relationship has been found between the mineralization of the large orebodies and igneous intrusions, especially norites and granites. The following paper is the result of a field and laboratory investigation of the ore deposits. The field work was done during the months of February and March of the year 1929, partly in the company of Prof. W. H. Newhouse. The laboratory studies have been made in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, under the supervision of Professor Lindgren and Professor Newhouse. GENERAL GEOLOGY OF GUAYANA HIGHLANDS General Geography and Physiography The Sierra de Imataca proper occupies a narrow belt along the south bank of the Orinoco River, in the northeastern part of the State of Bolivar and in the western part of the Delta Amacuro Territory of Venezuela. The State of Bolivar is generally known as the Venezuelan Guayana, as it forms part of the same physiographic province of the Guianas and northeast Brazil. In general the Venezuelan Guayana is an extensive plateau, sloping gently towards the Orinoco River to the north and towards the Atlantic Ocean to the east. In the northern part mountains are rare, and consist mainly of elongated low hills. Towards the British Guiana-Brazil boundary, table mountains with vertical cliffs are found forming the ranges of Parima, Roraima and Pacaraima. General Geology The Guayana Highlands are the northern extension of the Brazilian Archean shield. Only a few scattered masses of sediments remain on its

Jan 1, 1935

By Harry T. Davis, Jasper L. Stuckley

The object of this paper is to record and interpret field and laboratory observations made by the writers during five years of study of the barite deposits of North Carolina. Deposits of barite are known to occur in three localities in North Carolina (Fig. 1) two of which—the Hot Springs and Kings Mountain —contain material of economic value. The Hot Springs area begins near Bluff, some 6 miles south of Hot Springs, and continues northeast by Stackhouse; a total length of 7 miles. The Kings Mountain deposits lie along a belt that extends from the north end of Crowders Mountain in a southwestward direction, along the east side of this and Kings Mountain, to Kings Creek, South Carolina. The third locality is 3½ miles southeast of Hillsboro, Orange County, a short distance west of the highway leading from Hillsboro to Chapel Hill. It is not known when barite was first discovered in North Carolina, but production from the Hot Springs area began some 50 years ago. The state has never produced large quantities of barite—usually there have been less than three producers—and definite figures are not available, but reasonably reliable estimates indicate a total production of 300,000 tons. From 1901 through 1920 barite mining was on a seemingly prosperous basis and a large tonnage was shipped from the Hot Springs and Kings Mountain areas. With the depression of 1920 the industry began to decline and production practically ceased in 1926. Geology of the Barite Areas In the Hot Springs area barite is found in the Max Patch granite of Archean age and the Snowbird formation of Cambrian age. The Max Patch granite is of two varieties, one gray to whitish and the other red. The gray granite is coarse, at times porphyritic, and composed of quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase feldspar, with a little biotite and muscovite. The red granite is also coarse and differs from the other only in having conspicuous pink and red feldspar. Both varieties have been much metamorphosed and weathered in places, so that they contain secondary

Jan 1, 1935

By Bernard N. Moore

At present the demands of the United States for strorltium are met by imports from Germany, England and Canada, which vary considerably in proportions of ore and finished salts, in tonnage and in value. Statistics for the period 1926-1932 are given in Table 1. Domestic deposits arc known in many states, but the larger and purer ones are in the West, particularly in the desert region of southeastern California and western Arizona. These deposits are large enough to command interest, particularly in consideration of future cheap power at the Boulder Dam. The deposits described in this paper were examined during an investigation of the mineral resources of the Boulder Dam region by the United States Geological Survey for the United States Bureau of Reclamation in the spring of 1934. Mr. D. F. Hewett, who had general charge of the investigation, Mr. W. T. Schaller and Mr. M. I. Goldman contributed many helpful suggestions. Mr. N. H. Harshman assisted efficiently during the field work. Celestite Deposits The celestite deposits described in this paper are of sedimentary origin and Tertiary age. They are widely scattered, as shown on Fig. 1,

Jan 1, 1935

By Benjamin N. Webber

Many of the auriferous placers of the arid Southwest differ widely from the standard types of stream and eluvial deposits of more humid regions, although exhibiting some of the features of each. This divergence in characteristics is of geological and economic importance and appears sufficient to warrant the consideration of these placers as a class distinct from both stream and eluvial deposits. It is hoped that the consideration of these auriferous gravels as a distinct type of deposit will facilitate recognition of morphological and economic features that might remain obscure if these deposits were viewed in the light of stream or eluvial placers whose type locality is a more humid environment. "Bajada placer" is proposed as the designation for this type of placer deposit. Bajada is the Spanish term for slope and is used locally in the Southwest to indicate the lower slope of a mountain range, the portion consisting of rock debris and standing at a much lower angle than the rock slope of the range proper. It has been used in a geologic sense by Schraderl and others. The type locality of bajada placers is the Sonoran Desert,2 where they occur on the bajada or rock debris slope of desert ranges. Stream placers are represented in the Southwest, but most of them lie within the mountain topographic province, the Mexican Highlands2 section of the Basin and Range physiographic province. Eluvial placers may occur in the mountainous semiarid Mexican Highlands but are almost unknown in the extremely arid Sonoran Desert, as mountain slopes are generally too steep to permit the accumulation of any considerable mantle of residual debris. Since their salient distinctions are almost wholly the result of formation under conditions of extreme aridity, bajada placers are largely confined to the Sonoran Desert, although a few occur in the adjacent Mexican Highlands. They may be modified by the action of ephemeral streams, in which case the placer gravels of these arroyos approach stream placers in type and habit of occurrence, but their relation to an arid environment and the bajada type is usually apparent.

Jan 1, 1935

By Reno H. Sales

The present-day application of geological knowledge to mine operations owes much to Survey activities. Early publications covering developed deposits at Comstock and Eureka in Nevada, and Leadville in Colorado, aroused great interest in mine geology among mine owners and operators. In later years personal contacts between Survey geologists, notably Lindgren, Spurr, Emmons, Weed, and Ransome, to name only a few, and mine managers, mine superintendents and mine foremen, brought directly home the importance of geological mapping and study in connection with mine operations. However, the Survey had recognized from the beginning that it was not practicable, either from the viewpoint of cost or policy, to supply direct help to the miner. The situation was met by many large mining companies through the organization of geological departments to deal with problems of geology which concerned not alone the every-day mine operation but also the life expectancy of the ore deposit. The mine owner therefore looked to the mine geologist to apply the "laws of ore deposition" in estimating the future of his mine. The examination of outside properties also became a duty of the company geologist where replacements were needed or where expansion of operations was contemplated. And finally, out of this situation there developed the independent consulting geologist, specializing in geological examinations of prospects, mines, and mining districts, whose duties included the highly important but often difficult task of appraising ore reserves and ore possibilities. Thus, while it may be considered by many that the work of the mine geologist overlaps that of the Survey geologist, their respective fields of endeavor are not in conflict. The appearance of the mine geologist has lessened in no manner the need of intensive field and research work by the Geological Survey and related organizations.

Jan 1, 1935

By G. F. Loughlin

Nearly 55 years have elapsed since the U. S. Geological Survey was organized. During this period the mineral industries have grown from infancy or early childhood to well developed maturity, and some mining industries appear to be declining. Decline in mining is even more conspicuous in certain districts, or even states, than in any mining industry as a whole, and discoveries or developments of important new districts have been very few in recent years. Our reserves of most metals and nonmetals are adequate for many years of normal production, subject to changes in rate of exploitation that may be caused by foreign competition and by changes in technology and market conditions; but the declining production of many districts and the scarcity of important new discoveries to compensate for them is cause for some apprehension. It is likely that future production will depend to a considerable extent on deep exploration and on the thorough examination of places in and adjoining existing districts where significant outcrops are lacking and only apparently insignificant geologic features offer encouraging clues—more so than on the discovery of entirely new districts. Even the possible discovery of new districts, which have escaped the intensive search by the nontechnical prospector, must be dependent on geologic information. There is therefore no need for argument as to the value of geology to the mining industry; and the need of continuing to advance the science. The U. S. Geological Survey's past contributions to mining geology, as expressed in its official reports and other publications, are recognized by Ransome in his historical review of mining geology in the Lindgren volume.' These contributions have helped to form the basis of modern mining geology, which has grown rapidly in the last 25 years. This growth has witnessed the organization and maintenance of geologic staffs by mining companies in several districts, and their detailed work, together with the fact that nearly all of the larger mining districts have

Jan 1, 1935

By George H. Ashley

Mining, including quarrying, dates back almost to the dawn of history, beginning almost with the beginning of what we call civilization. State surveys date back about 100 years. Evidently mining flourished for thousands of years before state surveys were thought of. Why should it not continue to flourish without state surveys? First, it may be noted that as mining and civilization were contemporaneous, so state surveys and the science of geology were almost contemporaneous. As recently as 30 years ago the United States mineral laws were interpreted to mean that coal lands in the public domain were only those lands on which workable coal outcropped. The half billion acres of public land underlain by .coal but on which it did not outcrop were treated as homestead lands and open to settlement. Just what did the science of geology do to or for the mining industry? Until geology arose rocks or minerals or ores were where they were found. Their finding might be accidental, or might be the result of deliberate search or prospecting. In open, rocky country, with little or no vegetation, as in parts of the West, prospecting served very well, though at an enormous expenditure of human time and effort, if not money. The old saying that every dollar's worth of gold taken from the earth has cost two dollars may largely be charged to the time value of the usual method of prospecting. Geology changed all that. The science is still young and it still labors under handicaps of immaturity and early errors. Geology, however, has gradually been discovering the relations and conditions under which the several mineral deposits occur. Its elaborate studies of exhausted or nearly exhausted mineral deposits has done for it what human autopsy has done for medicine and surgery. Perhaps in no field is this plainer than in the oil and gas industry. Note might also be made of several important coal fields in England and on the Continent, in which the coal is everywhere deeply buried. Passing over the long period of growth during the past 100 years, geology today is prepared to offer the mining industry: first, a knowledge of the geologic conditions under which most minerals occur and to explore

Jan 1, 1935

By George W. Bain

The good work of the surveys supported by the different branches of the government needs little mention to geologists but is underappreciated by people at large. Geologists and engineers realize their usefulness and yet even from this group one hears occasionally an undercurrent of discontent about their work or the distribution of it. The very fact that discontent arises within and without this group and has drawn attention of legislative bodies of the country in the present time of stress means that a large number of people do not receive or do not realize that they receive benefit from these public works. This seems to be a clear indication that more than the relations between government surveys and the mining industry is involved and that if the mining industry is interested in continuation of the work of these surveys on the past scale they must consider the other survey divisions and their activity. Also, relations between government surveys and certain specialized types of mining have not been as close as they should be. I have been employed in almost the entire range of fields offered to geologists and have studied closely the feeling of people towards geological service. Recently it has been a pleasure to be closely associated with men who were as deeply interested in civic welfare and affairs of state as in the financial success of a large industry developing natural resources. Previously I had seen service in a national survey, a state survey, summer employment by a large mining company exploring new property and detailed geological work for a large corporation. Major responsibility as a college instructor has left me free to view each of these assignments in unprejudiced fashion and at the same time study the relation of government surveys to large natural resource industries, average industrial and construction work and service to nongeologists and laymen. Considerations Governing Geologic Public Service Three groups of people must be satisfied by the surveys if dissatisfaction is to be dispelled. First there is a large group of people who pay taxes to support the government activities and must receive some service

Jan 1, 1935

By Hugh M. Roberts

The important place in the economic life of the country that is occupied by the United States Geological Survey and the various state surveys is appreciatcd by most members of our Institute. To the public at large, the functions of these surveys are no doubt largely unknown, and taken for granted. Possibly a realization of the value of the work of these government branches is brought home most fully to that group of our members whose duties as examining engineers and mining geologists take them to mines and prospects in many different parts. The examining engineer or geologist is usually seeking for a judgment on the value of an enterprise from the standpoint of the useful minerals that may or may not be present; he must also attempt some prediction as to future market prices. On his opinion rests the determination of the expenditure of money, which rendered into other language means the expenditure of human effort. An opinion on an exploring venture or the reasoning out of the probable extensions of an orebody requires among many other things a background of knowledge covering the geologic horizons not only of an immediate area but of the surrounding area, a knowledge of the structural geology and of the causes that have operated to form the ores as they are. The great storehouses of this knowledge are the statistics, reports and maps issued by the various geological surveys. They supply the groundwork for additional observations. To these, reference is always made when going into a new district. The technique of work in the field and laboratory, and to some extent the hypotheses that underlie our methods of approach, have been formed by men such as Van Hise, Leith, Kemp, Spurr, Emmons and Lindgren, who developed their powers in the service of the geological surveys. In addition to whatever originality of thought, or power to observe facts and analyze them, may be our portion, we require, in the application of the arts and sciences, a knowledge of what has already been done. We stand on the shoulders of those who have gone before, and the extent of our vision often depends upon the thoroughness with which we form earlier work into one whole and make use of it.

Jan 1, 1935

By B.S. Butler

If geology is to continue to serve the mineral industry with increasing effectiveness as it has done in the past, there must be a steady output of better and better trained geologists and engineers with broader geological background. It may seem that the education and technical training of geologists belong entirely to the universities and colleges and has nothing to do with either Government surveys or the mining industry, outside of these activities furnishing a field for future work for the geological student. It will take but the most casual look, however, to see the large influence of Government surveys in education. Geological Maps Geological maps are essential tools in teaching geology, without which the instructor would be lost. Maps are produced by mining and oil companies, by university workers and by other individuals and institutions, but nearly all of the comprehensive maps, and most of the maps of small areas that are available, are directly or indirectly the work of public surveys. Such surveys in the past have been the only organizations with the continuity of effort and funds necessary to carry out projects that must combine the work of many individual geologists over long periods. Have we all the maps we need and of the quality we need? I believe that all who have used general maps, like the geological maps of the world, the maps of 'North America and the United States, maps of the several states and of smaller areas, appreciate fully the value of the maps as they are but realize also the value of greater accuracy, which can come only by more detailed work; and there are many areas of which we have no adequate maps. Other Helps I have chosen to emphasize maps as a help in preparing the young geologist to go out from the schools with some background of what has been accomplished and some outlook of what is yet to be done. Maps, however, are scarcely more essential to the teacher than many allied helps. What would the teacher of economic geology do if the work by Government surveys along that line were to be blotted out? We may

Jan 1, 1935

By M. N. Short

It is almost self-evident that the student of geology depends for his education in geology only in small measure upon his own observation. His chief sources of information are lectures and personal instruction from teachers, and the geological literature. Of these, the literature is by far the most important. The total geological knowledge available to the geologist of today is substantially that which is on the printed page, and no more than that. There are many geologists of outstanding rank who during the course of a busy and useful professional career have accumulated valuable geological knowledge. This, however, is never available to the profession, owing to the disinclination of these geologists to write or to the refusal of their employers to allow the results of their work to be published. With the passing of these geologists, their accumulated knowledge is irretrievably lost. In many mining districts the operating companies are not averse to the publication of geological information gathered by their engineering and geological staffs, but for various reasons this information is not published. However, when a public survey geologist goes into the district this information is placed at his disposal and eventually is published. But for the intervention of a disinterested public scientist, this information would have been buried in company files. In the last analysis, the teachers themselves depend largely upon the printed page for the knowledge they pass on to the student. Without geological literature, then, the instruction of geological students would be almost impossible. There is no .question that, as a whole, geologists who are on the public payroll have to their credit far more contributions to literature than have either teachers or professional geologists, whether the latter be independent or in the employ of private corporations. The very fact that geologists are upon the public payroll places them under obligation to make available to the public the results of their endeavors. They must either prepare these results for publication or they must furnish data or otherwise aid their colleagues to publish their results. The success or failure of a public geological survey depends entirely on the

Jan 1, 1935

By William M. Agar

Now that both the national and state legislatures are seeking ways of reducing expenses, the appropriations for geological investigation and for the study of mineral resources have been greatly reduced and in some cases entirely stopped. Is this policy justified? The sums saved by these reductions are always small. If the work accomplished by these surveys has no intrinsic value to the community, but is only an interesting way of spending some of the people's money when that money is plentiful, there should be no surveys at any time. If, on the other hand, they perform a necessary function, it is indeed foolish and short-sighted to save these paltry sums to the detriment of the community. It is not my purpose to undertake a general justification of geological surveys. Rather, 1 wish to call attention to the work of one state survey that has been discontinued, and to indicate ways in which the work was valuable to the people, even though that state's mineral resources are not very important, and why it should be continued. Though at one time in Connecticut's history iron mining and smelting were important, and copper was mined in appreciable quantities in two localities, it is many years since it could be regarded as a mining state. At present Connecticut stands far down among the states in the value of its mineral products. Granite for architectural and structural purposes, trap rock, clay, agricultural lime, feldspar and quartz, together with a few other nonmetallic minerals, are produced in appreciable quantities, but the natural resources of the state consist at present much more largely in its attractive scenery, woods, lakes, shore line, and in the opportunities that these offer for rest and recreation. Is the prosecution of geological work in such a state a waste of the taxpayer's money? Or can it be that though it was formerly valuable, the work is now completed? The only way to answer these questions is to review the geological work done in the past and to consider the type of information the people want, as reflected in the requests that have been received by the director of the survey in the last few years. There have been two periods during which Connecticut has supported geological work within its borders. The first began in 1835 when Percival

Jan 1, 1935

G. F. LOUGhlin,* Washington, D. C.—With reference to Mr. Bain's paper: The scarcity of adequate geologic data on building stone reflects, among other things, a lack of interest on the part of geologists. It has been one of my duties to attend to matters relating to building stone and other structural materials that have come to the U. S. Geological Survey, but for several years my principal administrative and other duties in the Section of Metalliferous Deposits have prevented me from giving structural materials the attention that they deserve. I have felt that investigations relating to structural materials should be assigned to someone else, but thus far nobody with a sufficient interest in the subject has come forward; further, the specific calls for these investigations have been so few and far between that it has not seemed practical to draft any one for the job. The general situation is such that steady and substantial progress in the application of geology to the utilization of structural materials is not likely to be made unless someone with keen interest in the subject takes the initiative. If the start is once made, I know from experience that cooperation from the more progressive members of the quarry and building industries will be readily forthcoming. Mr. Sales' suggestions are all constructive and most welcome. A thorough, detailed discussion of them might be as long as his manuscript, but could largely be summarized with the one word "amen" qualified by the alibi that a chronic shortage of funds and therefore of personnel has prevented us from carrying out some of his suggestions already. A few of them might call for an Act of Congress before we could undertake them, and one or two, such as the preservation of mine maps, with which I heartily agree, would call for much additional space as well as clerical and supervising help. Several items in Mr. Sales' paper—for example, the question of balance between the scientific and more directly practical studies and the surveys or resurveys of the larger and smaller mining districts—have been covered in my contribution to the symposium. The suggestion of frequent reviews of progress in the study of ore deposits is excellent and can be followed without serious diversion from projects already on the Survey's program. Brief reviews by Survey men have been published in periodicals, and the contributions by several of them to the Lindgren Volume1 may also be cited as serving this purpose to some degree. The practice of publishing short papers by Survey men in outside journals rather than in Government reports is largely the result of experience and expedience. Our printing funds are limited, and considerable time must elapse between the transmittal of a paper and its publication. Time is saved therefore by sending papers to outside journals, and the editors of those journals are usually glad to receive them. Members of the Survey would doubtless prefer to have the products and byproducts of their official work appear in official Survey publications if conditions were more favorable. If we were left entirely to ourselves the balance between the more scientific and the more directly practical studies would be somewhat better than it is, but the

Jan 1, 1935