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By Graeme Smart, Thomas Fiala

"Yorkville Plaza II, a 40-storey signature condominium residence, is scheduled to open on Avenue Road in Toronto’s prestigious Bloor-Yorkville neighbourhood in spring 2017. In close proximity to Toronto’s subway system, the new tower requires six levels of underground parking, founded in wet, silty sand.Isherwood Geostructural Engineers (Isherwood) was retained in April 2012 by developer Camrost-Felcorp to provide a shoring and excavation solution to address the challenging site conditions. A 31-storey upscale residential building under renovation with three levels of parking, owned by Camrost-Felcorp, flanks the site on the north. Situated on the eastern border is a 7-storey building with three levels of parking. Avenue Road, a four-lane arterial road that brings heavy commuter traffic into downtown Toronto, runs along the western border, and on the southern border of the site is a busy City road that brings traffic into the popular Yorkville area. The tunnel for the Toronto Transit Commission’s (TTC) overburdened east-west subway is located 14.5 m to the south, running below an existing 26-storey neighbouring building. Electrical and communication utilities (Bell) are closely located along the southern side. Non-documented existing excavation shoring, installed in the early 1970s, on the southern and western sides compounded the difficulties presented by the TTC tunnel.This paper presents the unique, non-conventional hybrid shoring solutions Isherwood developed to address the challenges presented by the site, as well as other complications that surfaced during the project: non-encroachment requirements (no tiebacks) beneath uncooperative neighbours, tight geometry to install shoring, and Toronto’s two coldest winters in decades.THE PROJECTBecause of circumstances associated with this site, for this project Isherwood designed two unique shoring walls which drew on their experience and expertise they had gained over the last 40 years. The following is the story of this site:Yorkville is an affluent neighbourhood in the heart of Toronto with a vibrant mix of high-rise towers, residential homes, tony restaurants and flagship shops. The development requires six levels of underground parking (a 20m deep excavation), with three levels undermining the high-rise buildings to the north and east and extending into wet, silty sand.Isherwood was retained in the spring of 2012 to design the excavation shoring. Isherwood’s scope also included field support, design, verification and monitoring. Finite Element Analysis was employed to confirm Isherwood’s design and anticipated movement of the south shoring wall and the TTC subway tunnel.The existing site was severed in two, with the proposed condominium tower slated for the southern portion. On the north half of the site stands a 31-storey building (Yorkville Plaza I at 21 Avenue Road), with three levels of underground parking, sitting on belled caissons which were one foot from the back of the proposed shoring wall so this would have to be considered in relation to the design and drilling methods. Constructed in the early 1970s, Yorkville Plaza I is currently being converted from the Four Seasons hotel to luxury condominiums by Camrost-Felcorp. To the east, directly adjacent to the proposed shoring, stands a 7-storey building (164 Cumberland Road) with three levels of parking, supported on spread footings founded on stiff clayey silt. The tunnel for the TTC’s busy east-west subway, a double box structure built by cut-and-cover in the 1960s, is located 14.5 m to the south, 9 m below grade, and running below an existing 26-storey building. Bell fibre optic communication cables and electrical lines, along with storm and sanitary sewers, are situated on the south and west sides of the site, leaving limited room to install shoring. Due to the heavy volume of commuter traffic on the four-lane arterial road (Avenue Road) to the west, site access and lane closure were not permitted here."

Jan 1, 2015

By Paikowsky, Samuel G.

"Due to the way drilled deep foundations are being constructed, their structural integrity and geotechnical capacity are highly variable. Drop weight systems are increasingly being used to dynamically test the capacity and integrity of drilled deep foundations. Conventional pile driving hammers are often either inadequate or not economical to test these foundations and drop weight systems have therefore been developed to allow for dynamic testing.The advantages of the tests include high mobility, short testing time, low cost relative to static load tests (allowing multiple tests at a single site), and integrity/construction quality evaluation concurrent with capacity determination. The dynamic testing method for drilled deep foundations encounter several difficulties including: the need for a pre-testing analysis for matching pile, soil and testing system, adequate mass and drop height to reflect the mobilized capacity without structural damage, test interpretations for irregularly shaped and/or non-uniform piles, need for reliable dynamic measurements depending on the impact and the distance between the impact and the measuring point, and limited knowledge about the accuracy of the predictions.The principles of the tests are presented using simplified models and demonstrated via a case history. Drop weight systems are reviewed. Dynamic measurement principles are explained and the construction and testing quality effects are outlined and demonstrated via numerical modeling and case histories. A comparison of dynamic and static tests is presented via a database, case histories and finally a short review of relevant codes is provided.1 IntroductionTraditional static axial load test is performed by a slow application of a force produced against independent reaction, imitating structural loading. It is the most reliable method to determine the pile’s performance as commonly required under typical service conditions. The major limitations of this testing are: (i) high cost associated with set-up, test duration, interpretation and construction delays, and (ii) inability to obtain information about the pile-soil interaction along the pile without additional testing means (e.g. tell tales, strain gauges, etc.). These limitations are acute when high capacity foundations are involved."

Jan 1, 2015

By H. M. Kim, J. Rutqvist, D. W. Ryu

"Demand of high pressurized gas storage in underground rock caverns is increasing. Compressed natural gas (CNG) and compressed air energy storage (CAES) are one of the promising examples after since lined rock cavern (LRC) concept has been verified through in-situ pilot tests. Two key essential concerns of high pressured gas storage in underground rock caverns are mechanical stability of the cavern against high inner storage pressure and the risk of gas leakage from the caverns.In this study, we introduce our results of numerical simulations so as to investigate the potential of monitoring for gas leakage at a pilot facility for CAES in underground LRCs. The pilot facility was constructed at a comparatively shallow depth of 100 m, compared to the previous cases with several hundreds of meters, aiming at validating the feasibility of the LRC storage concept in which inner sealing liners, consisting of steel plate and concrete linings, are installed inside the excavated rock caverns (KIGAM, 2011). Compressed air may leak through either initial defects of inner containment liners such as imperfect welding regions and in-situ construction joints of the liners, or through structurally damaged points of the liners during the CAES operation where compression and decompression of the caverns are necessarily repeated and their structural robustness can be deteriorated.For this perspective, we carried out a coupled thermodynamic and geomechanical deformation analysis using TOUGH-FLAC simulator, and investigated the effectiveness of strain monitoring method in detecting mechanical failure of liners which may provide major pathways of air leakage. We therefore used an equivalent continuum model to relate the localized tangential strain to fracture permeability changes, which was developed in our early work (Rutqvist et al, 2012). In detecting and characterizing the leakage location, we tested a cross correlation technique using the synthetic pressure responses monitored in case of the failure of the inner liners. From the investigations, we showed that tangential strain, rather than radial, monitoring especially at the inner face of the sealing liners can be more effective in detecting the mechanical failure of the liners.In localizing the leakage point, we noted that the interface between the inner liners and surrounding rock may not be perfectly bonded so as to increase permeability through which any leaking air pressure may migrate more dominantly. We also demonstrated that the cross correlation of the time histories of pressure measurement especially at these interfaces can be useful in identifying the leakage point. These results may provide useful information in overall design of monitoring and alarming system of our upcoming CAES pilot facilities."

Jan 1, 2015

By Habib Zughbi, Paul Zulli

"A key step towards sustainability in iron and steelmaking is to optimise the use of raw materials and energy consumption, and consequently minimise CO2 emissions. Models based on a Process Integration (PI) approach play a key role in evaluating various scenarios and the impact of introducing changes in raw materials and operational conditions on the overall energy consumption and CO2 emissions. BlueScope uses a PI based comprehensive model for its Port Kembla Steelworks (PKSW), called the Integrated Steelworks Energy and Emissions Model (ISEEM). ISEEM is tightly coupled to the configuration of PKSW. It is based on mass and energy balances as well as thermodynamic relationships. ISEEM is a steady-state model and is used to predict overall and detailed unit-by-unit energy consumptions and CO2 emissions. It is also used for plant-based scenario modelling. This paper investigates the impact of major changes to PKSW configuration, including the shutting down of a blast furnace and cokemaking battery, on the energy consumption and CO2 emissions of the plant. It discusses some of the issues involved in updating the model and some identified opportunities."

Jan 1, 2015

By Masaki Kitazume

"Many earthquakes take place every year in Japan, in which the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake and the 2011 Tohoku earthquake induced both a humanitarian crisis and massive economic impacts. As liquefaction which occur in a loose and saturated sand layer, induces quite large damages of infrastructures, the importance of liquefaction mitigation has been emphasized to minimize earthquake disasters for many years. Many kinds of ground improvement techniques based on various improvement principles have been developed for earthquake disaster mitigation. Among them, the grid type deep mixing method has been often applied to liquefaction mitigation. In the method, the stiff grid walls are constructed by mixing the soil and binder in-situ, which are expected to restrict the shear deformation of the soil within the grid walls so that the pore water pressure generation can be remained small. The high applicability of the method was confirmed in several earthquakes, including the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake and the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. In this paper, the development of the method, some applications of the deep mixing method to earthquake disaster mitigation are briefly introduced. INTRODUCTION In Japan, many earthquakes take place every year in Japan, in which the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake and the 2011 Tohoku earthquake induced both a humanitarian crisis and massive economic impacts. As liquefaction induces quite large damages, the importance of liquefaction mitigation has been emphasized to minimize earthquake disasters for many years. Table 1 shows the amount of damage to port facilities (Noda, 1991). According to the table, the amount of damage when liquefaction takes place is about 20 to 50 times larger than that without liquefaction. This highlights the importance of liquefaction mitigation to minimize earthquake disasters. There are many kinds of soil stabilization techniques developed for liquefaction in Japan. Among them, the deep mixing method (DMM), an in-situ cement stabilization techniques, was developed in 1970s in Japan and has frequently been applied to improvements of clayey and sandy soils (Kitazume and Terashi, 2013). The grid type DMM has been often applied to prevent liquefaction, where the grid of stabilized column walls function to restrict generation of excess pore pressure in the soil within the walls by confining the soil particle movement. The improvement effect of the method was first evaluated in the Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake in 1995 and was also evaluated in the Tohoku earthquake in 2011. In this paper, some successful performance of the deep mixing method to earthquake disaster mitigation in the two earthquakes are briefly introduced."

Jan 1, 2015

By Arthur Miller, Andrew Weakley, Heather E. Lawson

"IntroductionDynamic failure events in an underground coal mine, or “bumps,” are defined as “the sudden, violent bursts of coal from a pillar or pillars or a block of coal, resulting in a section, the whole pillars, or the solid block of coal being thrown into an open entry” (Peng, 2008). Reports of disastrous and often fatal dynamic failure events date back over one hundred years in the United States. Mining practices and technologies have significantly evolved over the course of the last century, yet these events continue to occur. The events at Crandall Canyon, Utah (Gates et al., 2007) and Brody No. 1 Mine in West Virginia (Barker and McNeely, 2014) are two recent failure events that resulted in a total of eleven fatalities. These events testify to the fact that dynamic failure remains an imperative safety concern. Furthermore, their continued occurrences indicate that engineering controls have proven inadequate at wholly mitigating the problem.Multiple conditions have been associated with the occurrence of dynamic failure phenomena, including• thick, competent strata that can create a bridging effect, resulting in high abutment stresses (Rice, 1935; Holland and Thomas, 1954; Iannacchione and Zelanko, 1995; Agapito and Goodrich, 2000; Peng, 2008; Whyatt, 2008; Whyatt and Varley, 2010)• overburden thicknesses greater than 500–700 ft. (Rice, 1935; Peng, 2008)• a strong coal that is resistant to crushing (Rice, 1935; Peng,2008) or that is “uncleated or poorly cleated, strong…sustains high stress and tends to fail suddenly” (Agapito and Goodrich, 2000)• the presence of sandstone channels or rolls that can serve to concentrate stresses (Iannachione and Zelanko, 1995; Agapito and Goodrich, 2000)• fracturing of strong units above or below the coal seam (Whyatt and Varley, 2010)• slip along pre-existing discontinuities (Peperakis, 1958; Whyatt and Varley, 2010)• multiple seam mining interactions (Campoli, Kertis, and Goode, 1987; Iannachione and Zelanko, 1995; Newman, 2002; Peng, 2008)• mining sequences that can cause anomalously high stress concentrations (Campoli, Kertis, and Goode, 1987; Iannachione and Zelanko, 1995)"

Jan 1, 2015

By R. Duinker

"This paper, an update to the 2003 paper titled "Knowledge, Technology and Profit" (Twigge-Molecey, 2003) analyzes 45 "problem projects" from the mining and metals industry over the last eleven years representing $133 billion in CAPEX. The projects have been designated as "problem projects" as they did not meet their owner’s initial expectations for project performance as defined in the paper. This paper explores some of the challenges that were present, through interviews with the knowledgeable individuals that were familiar with the projects and investigations using publically available information. The aim of the exercise was to identify the key challenges faced by the projects, and the contributing factors that led to the project failures so that the lessons can be applied to future projects.The project challenges have been categorized into four themes, technical, organizational, environmental & social and missing "homework" prior to board approval. Of noteworthy interest is that environmental permitting aspects have risen to become a significant and notable contributor to problem projects in 11 years from 2003 to 2014. It is further observed that many projects have been challenged by increasing size and complexity and with execution in more remote locations since the previous paper.It is a reality that every project will face challenges. Some projects are simply more challenging than others, and success or failure of the project is often determined by whether the project team is fully prepared to respond to the challenges. This in turn is largely dependent on whether the project "homework" was adequately completed and considered for all aspects of the project."

Jan 1, 2015

By Steven M. Rupprecht

"The artisanal mining sector in Central Africa is largely informal, yet provides an essential livelihood for many (directly or indirectly) participants, as well as facilitating an important source for the flow of income into many communities. Artisanal mining varies from site to site, but appear largely well structured despite its informality. The artisanal mining sites in Central Africa have some inherent management structure and the extraction itself is often organised. Artisanal mining is labour intensive and is generally conducted utilising hand digging methods e.g. shovels or hand chisels. Artisanal mining is generally more dangerous than small-scale or large-scale modern mining operations. This is especially true as artisanal operations are generally subsistence activities with artisanal miners focusing more on immediate concerns than the long-term consequences of their activities. When miners have no other source of income, they will usually find ways to evade controls and carry on working. The objective, through proper/dedicated training of artisanal miners is to migrate Artisanal mining to establish a small-scale mining (SSM) industry in Central Africa. Through developing the necessary skills in the fundamental areas of mining it is proposed that Artisanal Mining can become more productive and safer mining operations. The paper reviews the above focus areas, highlighting the skills and tools that are necessary to assist in establishing a sustainable small scale mining industry migrating from manual labour to semi-mechanised mining and processing. The purpose of the transformation process is to create a safe, healthy, environmental and community oriented mining operation with the objective to uplift the skills and wealth of the mineworkers and the general community."

Jan 1, 2015

By R. Webster

"Daniel Krige’s influence on soil science, and on soil survey in particular, has been profound. From the 1920s onwards soil surveyors made their maps by classifying the soils and drawing boundaries between the classes they recognized. By the 1960s many influential pedologists were convinced that if one knew to which class of soil a site belonged then one would be able to predict the soil’s properties there. At the same time, engineers began to realize that prediction from such maps was essentially a statistical matter and to apply classical sampling theory. Such methods, though sound, proved inefficient because they failed to take account of the spatial dependence within the classes.Matters changed dramatically in the 1970s when soil scientists learned of the work of Daniel Krige and Georges Matheron’s theory of regionalized variables. Statistical pedologists (pedometricians) first linked R.A. Fisher’s analysis of variance to regionalized variables via spatial hierarchical designs to estimate spatial components of variance. They then applied the mainstream geostatistical methods of spatial analysis and kriging to map plant nutrients, trace elements, pollutants, salt, and agricultural pests in soil, which has led to advances in modern precision agriculture. They were among the first Earth scientists to use nonlinear statistical estimation for modelling variograms and to make the programmed algorithms publicly available. More recently, pedometricians have turned to likelihood methods, specifically residual maximum likelihood (REML), to combine fixed effects, such as trend and external variables, with spatially correlated variables in linear mixed models for spatial prediction. They have also explored non stationary variances with wavelets and by spectral tempering, although it is not clear how the results should be used for prediction. This paper illustrates the most significant advances, with results from research projects."

Jan 1, 2015

By Sergio Burelli, Darren C. Megaw

"Operational challenges associated with solvent extraction (SX) plants include the effective on-line management of solids introduced from a variety of process streams. Solids are carried over from leaching circuits due to incomplete solid–liquid separation, may be formed as a result of chemical precipitation within the SX circuits, or introduced from downstream electrowinning operations. Solids in SX settlers result in operational challenges that impact plant availability and reduce optimized name-plate design capacity operation. Most available SX crud and bottom solids removal systems are limited in their effectiveness to handle high total suspended solids in SX circuits. Operations are often forced to take settlers off-line for complete removal of contained solids. These cleaning operations are hazardous, high risk, labour-intensive and costly in terms of production down-time and organic extractant and diluent reagent losses. Production pressure results in operations being reluctant to take SX settler units off-line for solids clean-out, resulting in continued operation of the SX, at reduced levels of mass transfer performance. Crud ForxTM is an SX solids removal system, for the on-line removal of interfacial and bottom solids associated with hydrometallurgical SX processes. A case study conducted at Glencore’s Mutanda Mining copper and cobalt operation in the Democratic Republic of Congo demonstrated the effectiveness of the Crud Forx. Benefits identified were an overall improvement in SX fire risk reduction, SX occupational health and safety and an improvement in copper mass transfer. INTRODUCTION Hydrometallurgical copper extraction and purification processes are often associated with ultra-fine solids distribution profiles throughout the process flowsheet (Virnig et al., 1999). The level and impact of the undesired deportment of solids to process streams varies from operation to operation, but the common denominator for all operations that employ solvent extraction (SX) as a copper upgrading and purification step is that, at some stage, they will have to manage solids (crud) within the SX circuit. Available crud removal systems in the industry have had limited success in continuous, effective interfacial crud and bottom solids removal from SX settlers. Most operations use basic removal methodologies which, at best, only result in delaying the requirement for taking the affected SX settler stages off-line for complete clean-out. This operational methodology results in production loss, increased SX organic extractant consumption and adds occupational health and safety risk to SX operations. The integrated Crud ForxTM/Crud FrogzTM SX solids management system assists operations in on-line SX solids management. The system has been proven to significantly reduce the requirement for off-line cleaning of settlers."

Jan 1, 2015

By J. -M. Bosgiraud, G. Armand, S. Dewonck, L. Richard-Panot

"The Meuse/Haute-Marne Underground Research Laboratory (URL) is located on the eastern boundary of the Paris Basin. The URL started to be built in 2000 (shaft sinking operations) in the framework of ANDRA’s (French national radioactive waste management agency) research program aimed at determining the feasibility of a reversible deep geological disposal of high-level and intermediate-level long-lived radioactive waste (HLW, IL-LLW). Its underground drifts are used to study the Callovo- Oxfordian claystone layer between 420 m and 550 m in depth.The ongoing research program (started in 2006) following the “Technology Readiness Level” (TRL) Scale is more dedicated to technologies improvement and demonstration issue of the different disposal components, even if characterization and monitoring studies are still ongoing.In rock mechanics, at the main level of the URL (located at 490 m), construction and evolution of disposal cells of different size are studied for HLW and IL-LLW packages. A step by step approach, started in 2006, is carried out based on comparison of HM behavior of parallel drifts excavated/supported by different construction methods. These various configurations give insight of the influence of construction method on the EDZ extent and evolution and on the progressive loading of the support, which are key issues to design the Cigéo disposal drifts and excavations.The concept of disposal cells studied for HLW consists in horizontal steel lined micro-tunnels 80 m long and 70 cm in diameter. Several campaigns of tests have been carried out since 2009 in order to demonstrate the feasibility of excavating such micro-tunnels and study their behavior under different conditions (with and without back filling the annular gap between the rock and the casing, watertight or not casing). A full scale demonstrator representative of the benchmark concept has also been excavated, to study its behaviour under thermal loading with heat produced by electrical heaters."

Jan 1, 2015

By Bo Westerberg, Mattias Andersson, Yvonne Rogbeck

"Deep stabilisation has been used in Sweden for decades. The method has been improved to allow it to be used in different types of soils and with new binders. One challenging soil type in Sweden is so-called sulphide soil, a fine-grained soil which contains organic material and iron sulphides. There have been some cases in Sweden of problems when using deep stabilisation in this type of soil, and in one case a slope failure occurred. This paper shows that it is possible to achieve good results with deep stabilisation in sulphide soils. Laboratory and field studies from a test site along the Botniabanan railway line in Sweden are presented. Geotechnical and chemical properties of the natural soil were investigated in the laboratory and one or more of these properties may explain the differences in the stabilising effect of sulphide soils. The strength of the laboratory samples and the columns in the field were tested and compared. It is shown that a satisfactory stabilisation effect can be achieved with the proper choice of binder, amount of binder added, curing time and mixing energy. In sulphide soils, more binder additive is needed than in “ordinary” inorganic clays.1. INTRODUCTIONThe term sulphide soils is used in this paper to refer to the unique types of sulphide soil commonly found in the coastal areas along the north-eastern coastline of Sweden between the cities of Gävle and Haparanda, a distance of about 900 km. Sulphide soils are in general very compressible, susceptible to creep deformation and normally show low undrained shear strength. A sulphide soil may have a negative environmental impact through acidification and chemical action if it is subjected to oxygen, for example during excavation or lowering of the ground water table, Mácsik (1999). In foundation engineering works, efforts are made, for environmental or/and economic reasons, to use the sulphide soil as the foundation instead of excavating it. Deep stabilisation by means of columns is a potential method for use when sulphide soil needs to be improved in order to reduce settlements or/and increase the stability of embankments.Sulphide soils were formed as sediments at river mouths and off the coast in the special environment prevailing at the time of sedimentation, Mácsik (1994). The water in which the sulphide soil was sedimented was brackish/sweet and the environment was typically deficient in oxygen. The environment prevented complete decomposition of the organic material in the sediments. As a result, sulphide soils were formed primarily in the form of a fine-grained composition of clay and silt minerals, iron sulphides and organic matter. Such environments still exist today and new sulphide soil sediments continue to be formed."

Jan 1, 2015

"On-site research and development as well as in-situ testing are key factors to the successful implementation of new mining equipment and technology. Unfortunately the demands and necessities of research and development often conflict with the reality of mine production in operational mines, especially during early stages of research and development and the initial testing of new equipment. Several experimental mines under university supervision attend to this problem and provide a close-to- reality testing environment for the mining industry and mining equipment manufacturers. This paper gives an overview of the design and organization of such an underground testing area as well as of the wide range of possible operations it can facilitate at the example of the FLB Experimental and Teaching Mine (Forschungs- und Lehrbergwerk) at Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, the central European underground research mine. INTRODUCTION As well as the Mining Engineering education follows the same pattern worldwide, the tasks and duties to be fulfilled by engineers in the productive mines are comparable around the globe. This also holds true for the technologies and equipment needed, both in surface and underground mines. Almost all mining equipment brands are being distributed worldwide. The tasks and challenges of guaranteeing an ever- increasing productivity at the mines, while simultaneously maintaining, respectively improving, safety standards, also in the developing countries and emerging economies, requests a constant development, improvement and adaption both of the engineering education and of R&D in technology and equipment. The increasing safety requirements at the mines, in combination with also increasing safety and liability policies, do often not allow a proper practical education of mining engineering students. At the same time, new technologies and equipment to be deployed / brought to the mines have to be fully functional in a production operation from the very first moment. Time losses like break-down time or even repair and maintenance breaks are often costly and, even when expected up to a certain degree with newly developed machines, have a wider negative impact on the neighboring operations and operations within that mine, thus often being unacceptable within the ongoing production process and extremely costly."

Jan 1, 2015

By J. -M. Lopez-Cuesta, C. Petter, B. Otazaghine, M. Batistella, R. Sonnier

"Kaolinite is a dioctahedral aluminosilicate widely used as paper filler and coating pigment. At the best of our knowledge, kaolinite is not widely used in polymer industry. Therefore, in this study, the flame retardant effect of kaolinite in ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) and polypropylene (PP) were studied and compared with an alumina trihydrate (ATH) and Talc. Cone calorimeter results shows that the weight percentage of ATH in EVA/ATH composites must be at least 50 wt. % in order to reach an improvement in fire retardancy in terms of pHRR. In the case of EVA/kaolinite, even with 35 wt. % the pHRR is largely reduced. Comparing PP/Talc and PP/kaolinite composites at 30 wt. %, both fillers leads to same reduction in pHRR with a slightly better performance for PP/kaolinite composites. In both cases an intumescent behavior of kaolinite composites was observed that could slow the rate of the rising degradation products, allowing radical recombination reactions. Also, it was observed that kaolinite forms a protective layer on the surface of the samples, which could insulate the material. These behaviors (intumescence and formation of a protective barrier) could reduce the transfer of the degradation products to the flame and explain the better performance of kaolinite composites. INTRODUCTION The use of mineral fillers as fire retardants in polymer matrix are well known and widely studied [1]–[10]. Aluminum and magnesium hydroxides (respectively ATH and MDH) are the most widely used inorganic fire retardants. To achieve fire retardancy with these mineral fillers, about 50-60% loading is required which decrease the physical properties of the composites. The fire behavior of composite EVA has been the subject of many studies [4], [7], [9]–[15]. EVA copolymers are commonly used in the cable industry, due to their high ductility, even at high loading rates. In such applications, the flame retardant systems should be introduced into the polymer to improve the fire reaction. Many flame retardant systems have been tested but the most used industrially relates to formulations based on hydrated mineral fillers (aluminum hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide). Their low cost and reduced fumes generation explains their success. However, to obtain good performance with this type of flame retardants, it is necessary to incorporate high levels (up to 65 wt %), which severely impact other properties such as processability and mechanical behavior. The main modes of action of these flame retardants are the dilution of the gas phase, the endothermic decomposition and a barrier effect created by the inorganic oxide residue which may be improved by the incorporation of other components such as montmorillonites, silicas or talcs."

Jan 1, 2015

By R. E. Cook

"Mineral deposits require substantial amounts of energy to transport and be processed into useable form, and as such present a real processing challenge in that the deposits are never homogeneous and ore body compositional characteristics are all over the map! Extracting the desired mineral(s) from the deposit at sufficient profit margin, despite severe fluctuations in market price, requires process automation architecture capable of supporting an integrated enterprise solution. Such an architecture will encompasses the activities of individuals, process units, process areas, plant level activities, mine management and business planning and accounting systems. Key to the automation process is the aspect of value generation. This paper brings together the various requirements for the automation of a mining enterprise and presents the different aspects of how to obtain value across the entire mining operation.INTRODUCTIONMinerals’ processing sites are historically long lived, 20 year life of mine is not uncommon and 75 years is not unheard of. Considering that hardware technology advancements are introduced every six months, or less, it is prudent to select process automation systems that adhere to “open” industrial standards versus proprietary based systems. In the minerals processing industry, the key to survival is driving the cost of production per unit volume to the lowest possible level and provide enough profit to sustain operations. Control system architecture and Business information technology are rapidly becoming important tools in the quest for productivity. Getting key dynamic business performance information at the right time to the right person or process unit is crucial to successfully achieving corporate goals. The process automation architecture selected must therefore be able to integrate to the various networking enterprises and business systems.The mining industry is generally known as an “extractive” industry that is very physically-oriented with respect to operations and the activities in which workers engage. Large numbers of people performing manual tasks in difficult surroundings, produce very variable outputs. But, times are changing – and so are industry best practices. While the nature of work still consists of activities such as ore extraction, ore movement, ore concentration, refinement and logistics, automation innovations are starting to change the nature of many of the production steps. The industry has transitioned from requiring more physical activities by workers, to more information management, automated control and collaboration within the operation. Humans are good at situational intervention and non-linear reasoning and do best when empowered with an overall production perspective. Machines and automation are good at repetitive functions, steady state operation, and managing transitions. Thus, a combination of advanced technology solutions, reliable and useful information and full human contribution are necessary to mining operations for value generation."

Jan 1, 2015

By J. Hamada, K. Yamashita, Y. Shigeno, T. Tanikawa

"This paper offers a case history of piled raft foundation in soft ground supporting a twelve-story building in Tokyo. To increase bearing capacity of the soft soil as well as a countermeasure of liquefaction, grid-form deep cement mixing walls (DMWs) were employed with the piled raft. Based on the long-term monitoring results, the ratio of the load carried by the DMWs to the effective structure load after the construction of the raft was estimated to be 0.3 while that carried by the piles was 0.7. In order to clarify the contribution of the DMWs to bearing the structure load, numerical simulation of the settlement and the load sharing among the piles, the DMWs and the unstabilized soil was performed using a three-dimensional finite element model. The results of the numerical simulation agreed well with the measured values, when the Young’s modulus of the DMWs obtained from the unconfined compressive tests was adopted and the shear modulus of the soft soil was reduced to 50% of that at small strains.INTRODUCTIONIn recent years, piled raft foundations have been used in many countries as building foundations. The effectiveness of piled rafts in reducing average and differential settlements has been confirmed not only on favorable ground conditions as shown by Katzenbach et al. (2000), Poulos (2001) and Mandolini et al. (2005), but also on unfavorable ground conditions such as soft clay and/or liquefiable sand using ground improvement technique (Yamashita et al., 2011a; Yamashita et al., 2011b; Yamashita et al. 2013). Grid type ground improvement using the Deep Mixing Method has been applied to sandy ground as a countermeasure of liquefaction to increase liquefaction resistance of unstabilized soil left in the grid walls where its shear deformation during seismic motion is reduced by the confinement effect of the grid walls (Kitazume, 2013). The high applicability of the method was demonstrated in the 1995 Hyogoken-Nambu earthquake and the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake (Tokimatsu et al., 1996; Uchida et al., 2012a; Uchida et al., 2012b).This paper offers a case history of piled raft foundation in soft ground supporting a twelve-story building in Tokyo. To increase bearing capacity of the soft soil as well as a countermeasure of liquefaction, grid-form deep cement mixing walls (DMWs) were employed with the piled raft. First, the results of long-term field monitoring on the settlement and the load sharing among the piles, the DMWs and the unstabilized soil are briefly described. Next, to clarify the contribution of the DMWs to bearing the structure load, the foundation behavior is simulated using a three-dimensional finite element model, and then the results of the numerical simulation are discussed."

Jan 1, 2015

By Masaru Sakakibara, Ngo Tuan Anh, Mitsuo Nozu

"In the southern region of Vietnam and the southern United States, numbers of Deep Mixing (DM) columns have been installed to increase the stability of slopes and mitigate ground settlement. However, in some cases, there were some quality problems for in-situ cement mixing such as inclusion of unmixed lumps. According to the investigations by the X-ray diffraction analyses, electrical conductivity (EC) test, and careful observations of in-situ mixing quality, it has been observed that the existence of expansive soil and its high EC value cause the insufficient in-situ mixing. The countermeasures to address these problems have been taken.INTRODUCTIONIn South Vietnam, under the guidance of numbers of references and standards (Miki, 1998, JGS, 2000, Kitazume et.al., 2001, BS 2005), Deep Mixing (DM) has been used in recent years for soft clay improvement to increase the stability of slopes and to reduce consolidation settlement (Nozu 2005, Tung et.al., 2009, S. T. G. Peng et.al, 2009). However, at the initial phase of the DM operation, the authors have encountered some unusual phenomena such as (1) lower strength and inclusion of unmixed lumps (Figure 1), (2) less amount of up-heaved soil, and (3) sticking of large lumps of clay to the mixing blades. In regard to the above (3), Photo 1 shows one of the countermeasures against the sticking. By means of the placement of additional plates, the stuck clay has been reduced significantly.Subsequently, we have noticed that the quality of DM columns has not been so good, which meant that there have been some unmixed lumps in the column despite high cement dosage such as more than 300kg/m3. The authors also have encountered the similar incidents in Vietnam and United States during the deep soil mixing work. For example, Photo 2 is the core samples taken from the DM test column in northern Vietnam adopting cement injection during penetration (CIDP) procedure. To solve this problem, various tests and investigations have been performed so far (Nozu 2010, 2012)."

Jan 1, 2015

By Stephen C. Tadolini, Anthony T. Iannacchione

"Coal burst represented a major hazard for some U.S. mining operations. This paper provides an historical review of the coal burst hazards, identifies the fundamental geological factors associated with these events, and discusses mechanisms that can be used to avoid their occurrences. Coal burst are not common in most underground mines. Their occurrence almost always has such dramatic consequences to a mining operation that changes in practice are required. Fundamental factors influencing coal burst events include strong strata, abnormal strata caving, elevated stresses, critical size pillars and the lack of sufficiently sized barrier pillars during extraction. These factors interact to produce excessive stress, seismic shock and loss of confinement mechanisms. Over the 90 years of dealing with these hazards, many novel prevention controls have been developed including novel mine designs and extraction sequences, most of which are site specific in their application. Without an accurate assessment of the fundamental factors that influence coal burst and knowledge of their mechanisms of occurrence, control techniques may be misapplied and risk inadequately mitigated. INTRODUCTIONCoal burst1are violent failures of ribs, roof or floor in underground mines. They are known to occur in complex ways and often under unique sets of conditions. This has made them extremely difficult to anticipate and control. Assessing coal burst risk requires engineers, managers, and safety professionals to recognize the fundamental factors responsible for these events. This helps practitioners recognize the hazard potential and understand the context in which various controls and barriers should be used. Only then can coal burst events be anticipated andappropriate mitigation techniques deployed.Over the last 90 years, a few coal burst events have been anticipated but most have eluded prediction. The authors examined the historical record (Appendix A) and determined that an inadequate understanding of the initiating geologic factors and their associated mechanisms of occurrence have contributed to the poor predictive capability. The historic record also indicates that control techniques have typically been site specific in their application."

Jan 1, 2015

By M. Scaggs, L. R. Mendoza

"On January 9, 2014, a large chemical spill occurred on the bank of the Elk River near Charleston, WV. Within hours, the potable water supply for more than 300,000 people was contaminated, and the incident captured national headlines for weeks. Although the primary chemical, crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol, or MCHM, is deemed nonhazardous, the impacts of the spill are significant – with all stakeholders, including the public, members of industry, and relevant government agencies experiencing losses. This case highlights the need for a more proactive approach to environmental management, shifting from crisis control and remediation to crisis prevention and risk management. INTRODUCTION On the morning of January 9, 2014, approximately 10,000 gallons of crude 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (MCHM) leaked from a 48,000-gallon storage tank sitting on the bank of the Elk River near Charleston, West Virginia (WVDEP, 2014; CSB, 2014). MCHM is a chemical commonly used in preparation of fine coal, and is deemed nonhazardous in terms of transportation and storage regulations and also toxicity (CDC, 2014a). Freedom Industries, Inc., a producer and vendor of specialty chemical products, had acquired the storage facility where the spill occurred from Etowah River Terminal, LLC just a few weeks prior in December 2013 (WVDEP, 2014; Freedom, 2005). The direct cause of the spill was ultimately determined to be two small holes in the base of the 76-year-old tank, which were created due to corrosion damage (Bauerlein & McWhirter, 2014). The spill site was located just over a mile upstream from the intake of a municipal water treatment facility operated by West Virginia American Water (WVAW), which serves a population of 300,000 across nine counties in central West Virginia (CDC, 2014a). In a matter of hours, the leaked MCHM made its way through the treatment facility and into the water of nearby homes and businesses, where its strong smell was noticed almost immediately. On the evening of the spill, WVAW concluded that its conventional treatment processes, which include carbon filters to remove a variety of contaminants from water, were not capable of fully removing the MCHM and a “Do Not Use” order was issued for all customers (WVAW, 2014a). With little information readily available regarding the potential human health effects of MCHM, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) quickly issued an advisory ruling that set a maximum screening level of 1 ppm for safe drinking water (CDC, 2014a). Based on this recommendation, the “Do Not Use” order remained in effect for a total of eight days, until January 17, when the WVAW distribution water was confirmed to have MCHM concentrations below this level (WVAW, 2014a). However, due to the pungent odor of the chemical, its presence was still recognizable in the WVAW facility and in consumers’ tap water after the order was lifted (Manuel, 2014). Recent studies have shown that the chemical can be detected in water at concentrations as low as 0.55 ppb by individuals experienced in odor identification (Rosen et al., 2014); and even individuals with no such training can detect pure MCHM at just 7 ppb (WVTAP, 2014). The fact that this chemical can be sensed at such low levels – indeed far below those considered safe – undoubtedly added to growing public concern. In response to numerous complaints and demands, WVAW continued flushing the treatment facility and pipes until February 25 when MCHM levels were measured below 2 ppb (WVAWb, 2014), and eventually replaced the affected filter media (WVAWc, 2014)."

Jan 1, 2015

By C. J. Weiss

"A commercially available Through-the-Earth (TTE) communications system was evaluated at an underground coal mine in eastern Kentucky. This field study was conducted as part of a larger multi-site evaluation of available TTE systems to determine their operational sensitivity. Field testing is being performed along with simulation techniques developed for geophysical surveys. The results of the field test will additionally be used to determine the applicability of these simulation techniques to TTE communications. The mine detailed in this paper was idled at the time of the study, which provided the nearest practical representation of a post-event mine shutdown. For this study, the three following communication modes were tested: surface-to-underground, underground-to-surface and surface-to-surface. Standard deployments of the TTE system using the manufacturer’s recommended procedures were able to achieve clear communications between underground and surface locations. Other arrangements of the units yielded intriguing results, some of which were predicted by computer simulations, others were unexpected. Future experimentation is planned to further evaluate the observed phenomena. INTRODUCTION The ability to establish effective communication between surface and underground personnel after a mine event is essential for both mine evacuation and mine rescue efforts. Current communication technology is reliant on physical infrastructure, such as antennas, cables, and repeaters, located throughout the mine. Such systems are easily disabled during a mine event because of their vulnerability to physical damage. A true emergency communications system would have the ability to function regardless of a mine’s physical state. Through-the-Earth (TTE) wireless communications technology has the potential to provide such a tool. Wireless TTE communications are exceptionally challenging because electromagnetic (EM), or radio, signals are subject to drastic attenuation as they travel through solid strata. In addition to attenuation, EM wave propagation is directly affected by the physical and petrographic characteristics, mineral compositions, metamorphic properties, and the degree of water infiltrations in the strata [1-5]. These strata characteristics are unique to each mine thus making the design of an effective, universally deployable, and reliable TTE communications system very difficult. At present, TTE technology is in the preliminary stages of practical deployment with only a few permissible TTE systems commercially available."

Jan 1, 2015