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By Torben L. Edens

Norddeutsche Affinerie is the largest copper producer in Europe. Two sites are in operation for the production of refined copper: primary copper production is located in Hamburg and secondary copper production in Lünen. A total of just under 560,000 tonnes of copper cathodes is produced annually at the two sites. Primary copper production using the flash smelter furnace has been in operation in Hamburg since 1972. Over the years, the capacity of the flash smelter has been increased in three expansion projects from 120,000 t to almost 500,000 t of anode copper p.a. The anode sector consisting of two anode furnaces and a 24 mould casting wheel still features just about the same equipment as in 1972. The paper describes the most important steps taken to optimise operation which have put NA in a position to cast meanwhile more than 500,000 t of anode copper annually with the two anode furnaces and 24 mould anode casting wheel.

Jan 1, 2006

By Norbert L. Piret

During smelting of copper, arsenic in the feed reports to a large extent to the gas phase and some enters the anode copper. From the gas phase it is transferred during wet gas cleaning directly, or indirectly after dust processing, to aqueous solution. During the electrorefining and anode slimes processing, the anode arsenic content is also transferred to aqueous solution. Technology for the efficient removal of arsenic from process streams and cleaning of aqueous effluents is well established. However, the arsenic-bearing products, which thereby are generated, can vary widely in consistency, quality and quantity, from large amounts of gypsum contaminated with water-soluble arsenic compounds to residues with high arsenic content ' or arsenic products. Arsenic management in a copper smelter not only is involved with the duty of compliance to the gaseous and aqueous emissions standards but also should have as objective the minimization of the generation of arsenic-bearing and, in general, heavy metal-bearing solid waste. The present paper outlines options and the associated economic aspects for minimization of arsenic-bearing solid waste generation, for improvement of the environmental compatibility of the residues to be deposited and for the .production of commerciable arsenic compounds under appropriate market conditions.

Jan 1, 1999

By Lucas Lopes da Costa

Bamboo fibers were characterized in terms of diameter distribution and tensile properties. Polyester matrix composites reinforced with these fibers were investigated for their flexural mechanical behavior. Specimens with up to 30% in volume of continuous and aligned bamboo fiber composites were bend-tested until fracture. The results showed an improvement in the composite strength and stiffness with the amount of bamboo fiber. A microstructure analysis by scanning electron microscopy revealed a reasonable adhesion between the fiber and the polyester matrix which justifies the improved mechanical properties of the composites.

Jan 1, 2010

By Ju Shao-hua

Although nowadays gold extraction methods are very abundant, none of them is satisfying, especially, in the field of heap leaching of low grade gold ore. The traditional heap leaching method of cyanide method plays an inglorious role of badly environmental pollution. In this paper, a bran-new and innoxious method of gold extraction system, metal-ammonium-chloride-ammonia (MACA), was proposed, and also analyzed both thermodynamically and practically. Thermodynamically, according to the principles of simultaneous chemical equilibrium and electronic charge neutrality, the thermodynamics of Au-NH4Cl-NH3-H2O system was studied by using the exponential computation method and through MATLAB programming, and the solid figure of its potential - c(NH4Cl) - c(NH4OH) was drawn. The results showed when the concentrate of ammonia is higher than 0.6 mol?L-1, fAu+/Au is only about -0.2 v. Practically, the leaching results of a cuprous gold ore showed that the extraction of gold can reach to 80% in this system. The preliminary results of reduction of the rich solution with copper and zinc powders showed that with deoxygenizing, the reduction effects were relatively good. These new findings and results have established a theoretical and practical base for developing a new process for heap leaching of low grade gold ores in this system. And the new process owns a series of merits such as, non-cyanogens, nontoxic, broader applicability.

Jan 1, 2006

By Fernando Guevara

Many smelting and slag-cleaning furnaces operate with cooling systems designed to freeze a slag layer over the refractory to protect it. The fluid flow and heat transfer conditions associated with the freeze layer and mushy zones are poorly understood. These phenomena were simulated with a small-scale room temperature, 2-dimensional model, using an aqueous solution of calcium chloride to simulate the slag. Reasonable similarity with conditions encountered with copper and nickel smelting systems was achieved (Pr 50 and Ra 108, in the laminar-turbulent transition). Measurements of the freeze layer development and velocities were made with the Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique. Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) were also made of the unsteady fluid flow and heat transfer problem. It was found that the solidification process is well described using an improved model for high molecular viscosity in the mushy zone. Solid front growth, isothermal profiles, velocity profiles and heat transfer through the walls showed good agreement between the PIV and DNS results. Experimental and numerical velocity profiles close to the freeze layer show a parabolic behaviour in the vertical velocity profile which is completely different from the calculation of heat transfer using a sharp interface model. The reason for this is attributed to the effects of the mushy zone with a high viscosity and high shear stresses acting on that area.

Jan 1, 2006

By D. Valic

In 1997, 9.2 million tonnes of mined, recoverable copper was produced, of which, 1.8 million tonnes or 19.4% was produced by leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning. The amount of copper produced by this method grew faster than those attained from concentrate smelting, signifying the growing importance of this low-cost production method. Statistical experimental design, unlike traditional approaches, allows for proper distribution of experiments within the boundaries of factors being studied such that the number of experiments required to develop a sound relationship between the factors and a response is minimized. In the past, very little use has been made of statistical experimental design in copper electrowinning studies. Traditional one- variable-at-a-time approaches are widely employed for this purpose. The present study employs a factorial experimental design to relate current efficiency with current density (180 and 300 A/m2), copper concentration (25 and 65 gL), and temperature (40 and 60 °C). Pure synthetic electrolyte with a constant acid concentration of 180 g/L was used throughout the study. The designed study produced a linear relationship where the independent variables of current density, copper concentration, and temperature, and their interactions, were found statistically significant. It was shown that current efficiency could not solely be used as a predictor of copper cathode quality. The quality of the deposit is difficult to be incorporated into a model or relation. It was determined that other measures, such as cathode morphology and crystal structure should be considered. This was done through XRD and SEM analysis.

Jan 1, 1999

By Tuula Mäkinen

In 1959 Outokumpu started up an integrated nickel smelter and refinery at Harjavalta. The flash smelting ? Peirce-Smith converting route was applied, and the high-grade converter matte was further refined to nickel cathodes by leaching and electrowinning. In 1995 the production capacity was increased from 17 000 mtpa to 52 000 mtpa, based on the Direct Outokumpu Nickel Smelting Process. The additional refinery capacity is based on hydrogen pressure reduction, producing nickel powder and briquettes. The smelting operation is currently part of Boliden Group and the nickel refinery part of OM Group. In the DON technology, high-grade nickel matte with low iron content is produced in the flash smelting furnace directly without subsequent converting. The metal values in the smelting slag are recovered in an electric furnace as an iron containing Ni-matte. The mattes produced differ from the conventional nickel mattes in many respects, and therefore focused R&D efforts have been made in order to cope with their melting points, fluidities and settling properties. When developing and operating metallurgical processes it is crucial to manage and control the characteristics of the products as well as by-products generated in different steps of the process chain. The low melting points of the high-grade nickel mattes produced in the DON furnace, particularly those low in copper, have pointed out challenges in the furnace design, in particular in the hearth and its thermal engineering. Also key issues of the DON technology are smelting of high-magnesia concentrates, the recoveries of nickel and copper, as well as those of PGM`s and cobalt. These factors can be affected by a proper selection of the process concept, and the operational conditions in the processing vessels. This paper deals with the experience of the DON technology gained over the first ten years of operation, including the significant environmental impacts. Selected results of the thermo-dynamic modelling of DON and EF mattes and high-magnesia slags are reviewed, with the reference to the mattes produced. Also the design principles of the FSF and EF will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2006

By Michal Rzyman, Nakamura Takashi, Shibata Etsuro, Grabda Mariusz, Oleszek-Kudlak Sylwia

"Thermodynamic considerations indicate that heavy metal oxides should easily react with HBr, the main gaseous product from the thermal decomposition of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), forming low boiling point metallic bromides suitable for volatile separation. Mechanisms and kinetics of the bromination reactions must be well recognized prior to developing of a new treatment for the simultaneous recycling of plastic waste containing brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and metal oxides (printed circuit boards, automotive shredder residue, plating sludge, metallurgical dusts). In this work, a differential scanning calorimeter and laboratory-scale furnace were used to investigate the possibility and conditions of the bromination of ZnO by product of thermal decomposition of TBBPA. The formed solid, condensed and gaseous products were analyzed by X-ray diffraction analysis, electron probe microanalysis, inductively coupled plasma analysis, ion chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Introduction Tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA) is the largest volume brominated flame retardant (BFR) in production today and is used in more than 70% of the world’s electronic and electric (E&E) appliances [1]. The growth in the production of E&E products and the fact they become obsolete so quickly cause significant problems in the safe disposal and recycling of the electrical and electric waste (E-waste) and other BFR-containing waste [2]. Among various treatment processes, thermal methods are most useful since they allow the recycling and recovery of both the organic and inorganic fractions of the waste. However, incineration of the BFR-containing wastes results in the emission of hazardous organobromine compounds, while the main portion of bromine released from decomposed BFRs is present in flue gas as hydrogen bromide (HBr) [3]. HBr, which is known to damage incineration systems, seems to be a very effective bromination agent for many metallic oxides present in waste. The concept of this study is to take advantage this of its property."

Jan 1, 2008

By A. D. Neuman, C. C. Davis, M. R. Lopez, A. C. Martinez, T. A. Nothwang, S. L. Voit

"One of the thrust areas for the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) program is the development of actinide bearing fuels for transmutation in a fast reactor. Mixed Oxide (MOX) fuel has an extensive fast reactor irradiation history and thus is being considered for use as a baseline composition from which minor actinides (MA) can be incorporated for use as a transmutation fuel. This study involves characterization of precursor powders and pellets to be inserted into the Advanced Test Reactor in Idaho. These pellets will have three compositions: one standard MOX composition, (U80Pu20)O1.98, and two compositions of MA-MOX with oxygen to metal ratios (O/M) of (U75Pu20Am3Np2)O1.98 and (U75Pu20Am3Np2)O1.95. The precursor powders, which consisted of, highly enriched uranium oxide, HEUO2, depleted uranium oxide, DUO2, neptunium oxide, NpO2, americium oxide, AmO2, and plutonium oxide, PuO2, were characterized using a field emission gun scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM) for particle morphology, size, and size distribution prior to pellet production.IntroductionThe Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP) was created in order for “fuel-cycle supplier” nations to provide assured supplies of nuclear fuel to “fuel-cycle customer” nations. The customer nations would utilize the fuel for electricity generation and subsequently return it to the supplier nation after it is spent. This spent fuel would then be reprocessed by the supplier nation in order to recycle the actinide constituents, mainly uranium and plutonium, in advanced nuclear power reactors, and thus reducing waste volumes [1, 2]. Nuclear materials would also be strictly controlled through the International Atomic Energy Agency. One of the thrust areas for the GNEP program is the development of these actinide bearing fuels for transmutation in a fast reactor under the U.S. Advanced Fuel Cycle Initiative (AFCI) in order to transmute long-lived transuranic actinide isotopes into shorter-lived fission products [3]."

Jan 1, 2008

By Shunli Zhang

Metals recovery from electronic scrap by physical separation may provide an alternative to the current recycling approach, through which halogenated flame retardants can result in hazardous dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzo-furans. On the basis of a complete sink-float analysis of personal computer and printed circuit board scrap, and in view of the advantages of dry processes for electronic scrap recycling by mechanical separation, air table separation is prioritized in an attempt to separate metals from plastics and glass involved. In the present paper, theoretical and practical considerations of air table separation have been detailed. It has been shown that air table separation is effective for recovering copper and precious metals from this specific waste stream. With the feed rate of 60 kg per hour, the combined grade and recovery of copper, gold, and silver attainable for the two heavy products produced by the air table used in the present study was shown in the following table:

Jan 1, 1998

By G. A. Brooks, R. W. Matusewicz, Nazmul Huda

"A computational fluid dynamic (CFD) model of a conventional tuyere blown slag fuming furnace has been developed in Eulerian multiphase flow approach. The model was developed by coupling CFD with kinetics equations developed by Richards et al. for zinc fuming furnaces. The model integrates submerged coal combustion and chemical reactions with the heat, mass and momentum interfacial interaction between the phases in the system. The model predicts the velocity, temperature field of the molten slag bath, generated turbulence, vortex and coal utilization behavior from the slag bath. The highest coal penetration distance was found to be at l/L = 0.2, where / is the distance from the tuyere tip and L is the total length (2.44m) of the modeled furnace. The model also predicts that 10% of the injected coal bypasses the tuyere gas stream un-combusted and carried to the free surface, which contributes to ZnO reduction near the free surface.IntroductionSignificant metal values are often discarded with slag in the form of metal oxide produced by the smelting industries. These metal values can be recovered from the slag by proper treatment. Zinc slag fuming is such a process, where a reductant source (usually coal) is injected in the molten slag bath to reduce dissolved ZnO from the bath into metallic zinc vapour. The process can be carried out in either conventional tuyere blown furnace or top submerged lance (TSL) smelting furnace. Conventional slag fuming processes are carried out on batch basis in a rectangular tuyere blown furnace. Approximately 50 tonnes of charge (either molten slag or solid slag) is fed to the furnace at the beginning of each fuming cycle. Two opposing sets of submerged tuyeres are employed to inject air and pulverized coal into the molten slag bath to carry out combustion and reducing reactions."

Jan 1, 2012

By Y. Y. Sheng

Plume flows created by gas injection into liquid metals have been studied extensively, however the dynamics of bubbles within the plume have not received adequate attention, particularly for large, irregular bubbles, characteristic of the processing of liquid metals. The present model uses a combined Eulerian-Lagrangian approach in which an estimated void fraction distribution is used to calculate the liquid flow field with a conventional Eulerian scheme. The trajectories of bubbles are then computed in a Lagrangian manner using the estimated flow field, and experimentally measured information on bubble drag coefficients', lateral migration due to lateral lift forces and interaction with turbulent eddies, and variation in bubble size due to break-up. Turbulence in the two-phase zone is modeled with a modified k-e model with extra source terms to account for the second phase which have been recently determined by the present authors. The computed void fraction and turbulent liquid flow field distributions are in good agreement with experimental measurements.

Jan 1, 1993

By James E. Hoffmann

This paper briefly reviews the conventional technologies employed for the treatment of copper refinery electrolyte bleed. The strength and weaknesses of conventional practice will be reviewed and a number of process options to address the weaknesses of present process technology will be described and evaluated. The effect of process selection upon energy consumption and the environmental aspects of process effluent control will be discussed.

Jan 1, 1997

By D. A. Horne, V. R. Daiga

Certain steel mill wastes contain significant amounts of zinc oxide due to the use of galvanized scrap during the steel making process. Typically electric arc furnace (EAF), and basic oxygen process (BOP) flue dusts contain 20 to 30% zinc oxide and 40 to 50% iron oxides, along with smaller quantities of lead and cadmium. These materials can be recovered from the flue dusts by using a proven rotary hearth furnace (RHF) process. By-products of the recycling operation include a crude zinc oxide fume, which is captured in a baghouse filtering system, and sponge iron that may be recycled into the steel making operation. Crude zinc oxide properties plus the operating experience from two commercial RHF installations utilizing MR&E's DRyIron™ Process will be presented.

Jan 1, 2000

By Daoxin Wu, Zhong Cao, Yan Shi, Yu Ding, Huanli Yang, Zhongliang Xiao

"2-substituted benzimidazole-zinc and 2-substituted benzimidazole-copper complexes were main components of organic solderability preservative (OSP) in PCB producing process and affect the thermal stability of OSP film. So these four complexes were prepared by 2-substitutedbenzimidazole reacting with zinc ion and copper ion, the complexes crystals were determined by IR, its thermal stabilities were studied by TG method. The results indicated that the thermal stability of 2-substituted benzimidazole-zinc is higher than the 2-substituted benzimidazole copper,and the thermal decomposition mechanism was presentedIntroductionImidazole compounds which is an important heterocyclic compound shows the important value and outstanding prospects[I-3l in field of biological engineering, medicine, and high-performance composites. It's said that imidazole compounds is an excellent new metal surface treatment[4] agent, because it has good reaction activity with metals and can form a chemical layer on the metal surface. The complexes of imidazole were main components of organic solderability preservative (OSP) in PCB producing process and affect the thermal stability of OSP film. The mechanism of imodazole combined with metal and film deposited has been reported, but the opinions about thermal stability of film have bifurcation, let alone the thermal decomposition mechanism of film at high temperature. The complexes were prepared by combining of 2- substituted-benzimidazole with zinc and copper iron, which were studied by IR and TG method, in order to get thermal stability of different complexes."

Jan 1, 2011

By Susana Caballero, Lourdes Yurramendi

Air Pollution Control (APC) ashes from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration (MSWI) plants need to be treated prior to landfilling due mainly to their heavy metals content. This research evaluates the capacity of the APC residues to sequester carbon dioxide, while the ash becomes stabilized for storage. It has the benefit of using two wastes, with no addition of any raw material. APC samples from different MSWI plants were treated by gas/solid accelerated carbonation at different temperatures and carbon dioxide concentrations to evaluate the residue behaviour to the process. The extent of carbonation was evaluated by means of weight gain upon carbonation and by the measurement of the final carbonate content. The APC residues were analyzed before and after the treatment in order to know their composition and their leaching behaviour according to the criteria for the acceptance of wastes at landfills established by the European Council Decision 2003/33/EC.

Jan 1, 2008

By James M. Lockwood

"Eureka Technology has developed and patented a technology for the recycling of EAFD. Through this process all constituents of the material become salable commodities or are returned to the steel making process. In transforming the EAFD ""waste"" stream into a ""process"" stream the Steelmaker eliminates potential liabilities and the uncertain future of current processes while further reinforcing its role as a recycler. This is a cost-effective and energy efficient technology that combines hydrometallurgic and electrolytic processes resulting in the recovery of salable metals. For instance, unlike pyrometallurgic processes, zinc is recovered in metallic form and no elements are volatilized. This on-site operation also eliminates expensive transportation costs. In summary this technology reduces the cost of dealing with EAFD by recycling material currently being landfilled.IntroductionWorld crude steel production reached a new record level in 2007 - 1.34 billion tons of which 31% was produced by EAF steel makers [1]. This resulted in the generation of over 6 million tons of EAFD. This steel byproduct contains significant amounts of lead, cadmium and other hazardous metals. In the United States the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has designated EAFD a hazardous waste (EPA waste code K061). With over 50% of steel production in the US coming from EAF steel making this byproduct represents the single largest source of solid hazardous waste generated."

Jan 1, 2008

By A. McLean, S. Dawson, N. D. G. Mountford

"IntroductionIn order to predict the accepted industrial practice for the year 2000, it may be helpful to first consider the rate of development of scientific knowledge. If the speed with which man can travel on commercial vehicles is taken as a criterion for determining the rate of progression, then it can be seen from Figure 1 that advancement in our present century is very rapid. Likewise, if computer technology is used as a criterion for the measurement of scientific advancement, it becomes evident that technological evolution can be highly exponential. These two examples are sufficient to demonstrate that engineers and managers cannot afford to regard scientific development as being linear with respect to time if they are to avoid underestimating the needs of society.Within this framework of overall development, the time required for individual ideas to progress from inception to regular application has decreased considerably. For example, X-rays first discovered by Roentgen in the 1890's and now used widely in medicine and engineering, required a developmental period of some eighty years. The motorcar evolved from early beginnings at the turn of the century to a position of great social impact in sixty years. Rectifier materials used in high frequency radar to the present explosion in communications, required forty years. As illustrated in Figure 2, the period is shortening rapidly.The use of sound waves appears to be following a similar path. There is now a considerable body of knowledge concerning their behaviour and exceptional advances have been made. In medicine and engineering the sonic approach to examination is well established, and acoustic testing forms the basis of several diagnostic and quality control applications. With respect to metals engineering, ultrasonic testing has contributed to the understanding of the relationship between the size and number of internal defects and the probability of premature failure. This has allowed the designer to incorporate appropriate safety factors in his designs; but more importantly, the realization of the deleterious effect of inclusions on the performance of the final product has resulted in a continuous pressure on the material suppliers to reduce the number of defects in their products.It is not only the designer who is demanding defect free material but also the fabricator, as material breakdown during manufacture can be prohibitively expensive. Examples of this can be found in both the aluminum and steel industries where ultra clean sheet is required to ensure that rejections are minimized during beverage can manufacture and other deep drawing operations."

Jan 1, 1988

By Mahmood Alemrajabi

When LKAB processes their iron ores in northern Sweden, they generate apatite as a by-product. The apatite has been recovered by flotation and the concentrate contains about 0.4 wt% rare earth elements (REE). Both phosphate rock and REE are listed as critical raw materials for the European union. In the present study, the recovery of REE within the nitrophosphate process of fertilizer production has been studied. In the first stage, the REE are precipitated and isolated as a phosphate concentrate. For further purification and individual separation of REE by solvent extraction, removal of phosphorous from the concentrate to enhance the dissolution of REE in mild acidic solutions is essential. In this study, thermal treatment of the concentrate with sodium hydroxide at elevated temperatures followed by water leaching has been studied in order to separate the phosphorous and thereby facilitate dissolution of the REE. The results show that 95% of total phosphorous initially present in the REE phosphate concentrate is removed after thermal treatment with NaOH 1:1 mass ratio, at 400 °C.

By S. A. Platias

Large amounts of dunile tailings can be recycled for olivine produdion from the existing beneficiation adivity of chromite ore in northern Greece. This olivine production aims at the preparation of a material suitable for the substitution of the environmental hazardous quartz sand in the foundries of Europe In smelting of chromite ore the losses that occur ore usually of the order of 6-8% Cr that report in the slag. Most of this is in the form of oxides that cannot be recovered, but usually 30-35% is in the form of FeCr alloy that can be recovered by gravity methods. About 90% of the produced slag is sold for road construdion after crushing to a desired grain size. Finally, recycling of chromites sludges from the ferrochrome produdion plant, through the preparation of pellets, improved the total chromite yield by 2%.

Jan 1, 1996