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By C. R. Van Hise

Introduction.............29 The Three Zones of the Lithosphere ..30 Zone of fracture............31 Zone of flowage............ 31 Factors influencing depth at which flowage occurs.. 32 Zone of combined fracture and flowage.. 33 The Water-Content and Openings in Rocks....36 Condition of rater in the zone of fracture.. 36 The openings in rocks...........38 Size and number of openings..... 40 Ore-deposits derived from zone of fracture..45 The source of underground water......... . 47 The cause of the flowage of underground water..47 Belts of underground circulation.. 51 Upper belt of underground circulation.. 51 Lower belt of underground circulation.. .... .52 Capacity of water for work in the lower belt of underground circulation........... 53 Movementsof water in the lower belt of underground circulation. 54 The preferential use by water of large channels.. 60 Physico-Chemical Principles Controlling the Work of Under ground Waters..........62 Chemical action............63 Underground aqueous solutions..64 The relations of solution and temperature..... 65 The relations of solution and pressure..66 Precipitation........... 67 Precipitation by change in temperature..68 Precipitation by change in pressure..69 Precipitation by reactions between aqueous solutions.. . 69 Precipitation by reactions between liquid solutions and solids. 70 Precipitation by reactions between gases and solutions. and solids............71 The General Geological work of Underground Waters.. . 71 Division of the zone of fracture into a belt of weathering and a belt of cementation............72

Jan 1, 1901

By Orville R. Lyons

DISCUSSION Judson S. Hubbard (The Humphreys Investment Co., Denver)—In this very interesting paper several brief references are made to the Humphreys spiral, a device used for cleaning fine coal. In Table I, Plants 76 and 77, data are given on spiral performance treating Raton and Trinidad coal. The fine coal, as fed to the spiral in these instances, is actually a table middling, hence the more easily treated material was previously removed and a large number of particles were present which were difficult to clean. Mr. W. M. Bertholf of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. presented a paper in February, 1946, Cleaning Table Middlings from a Coal Washery with the Humphreys Spiral Concentrator, from which I quote: "In considering the results of our tests it should be noted that the feed was our table middling, and that any real separation is a 'moral victory' as there is little material that could properly be called coal and practically no heavy rock, the consequences being that previous attempts to clean the middling have not at all been successful." Referring again to Table I, Plants 72, 73, 74, and 75, these data were obtained by Yancey and Geer and others and presented at the February 1950 Meeting, AIME, in a paper entitled Laboratory Performance Tests of the Humphreys Spiral as a Cleaner of Fine Coal. Results shown for those tests involve all particles from 8 mesh through the colloids, which admittedly is not an ideal situation for spiral feed if much refuse is contained in the —80 mesh or —100 mesh size range. As an illustration of the effect of treating too broad a size range, let us consider Plant No. 75, Kentucky No. 9 seam. Spiral feed was 8 mesh x 0. Now had this been 8x100 mesh the percentage of misplaced material would have been 8.0 pct instead of the reported 15.26 pct. Similar comparisons can be made on the other data presented with respect to the spiral. Other types of equipment show a similar trend in that whenever too fine a size is treated in a given unit process the percentage of misplaced material increases. Since the spiral is working near the finer end of the size range, it will sometimes be advantageous to treat the entire range of —8 mesh material rather than to deslime and make a fair showing on, say, the +80 or + I00 mesh. Desliming is subsequently done in any case in the dewatering or thickening operation. Results obtained by spiraling any given coal depend on factors too numerous and complex to discuss here, but there are strong indications that proper preparation of feed to the spiral can improve results obtained on some of the raw coals tested. This is clearly pointed out at the end of the aforementioned paper by Yancey and Geer. "The spiral is an extremely simple device which involves no moving parts and is constructed almost entirely of unmachined castings. Since it is such an uncomplicated mechanism, operation is simple and virtually foolproof. These characteristics, which go far toward insuring low cost operation, are attractive attributes in any coal cleaning unit." Certain equipment used in conjunction with the spiral has resulted in a decrease in the percentage of misplaced material, notably in actual practice the launder screen which is used to remove objectionable high ash fines from a spiral-washed coal product. Private correspondence with the U. S. Bureau of Mines has intimated that an additional yield of coal is possible by flotation of the spiral middling. Possible future improvements and developments may result from other methods now under consideration. Finally, some compromise must be made between the best metallurgical performance and the best practical or economical results. Mr. Lyons emphasizes in his summary this objective of overall economy in selection of equipment. G. B. Walker (American Cyanamid Co., Stamford, Conn.)—I had the pleasure of reviewing the draft of this paper and my curiosity was aroused by the data given for Tromp plants, in that all of the examples shown appeared to be 2-product separations, whereas all the Tromp plants with which I am familiar have been 3-product units. The data given for plants No. 101 and 102 appear to be taken from Tromp's brochure on his process and represent the results obtained at the Dominale plant in Holland which was operated for many years by Mr. Tromp. The plant, which was designed to treat 58 tons per hr, was sampled while treating 35 tons per hr of 3Y4x-in. coal. Example 101 appears to conform to what would result if the middling product were calculated into the refuse product, while Example 102 represents the calculation of the middling into the coal product. It is believed that Examples 103 and 104 represent the operation of the Willem-Sophie Mine in Holland recalculated on the same basis. In checking the English examples given by numbers 14, 15, 16, and 17, the same procedure seems to have been followed. These results have, apparently, been taken from an article in Colliery Engineering in August 1941, describing the initial operation of the Williamthorpe Colliery of the Hardwick Colliery Co. Two vessels are employed in this plant, one to treat soft coal and one to treat hard coal. Example No. 14 presents the results that could be obtained from the soft coal bath if the middling were calculated into the refuse, and Example 15 the results when the middling is calculated into the coal. Examples 16 and 17 represent the same expedient in the case of the hard coal bath. Of interest to this discussion is the fact that during the past year the Simon-Carves Engineering Co. in England has installed in the Williamthorpe plant their new "Sim-Car" medium cleaning system which is based on magnetic extraction and control and which is licensed under the Heavy-Media Separation Processes patents by the American Zinc, Lead and Smelting Co. This system has been described in the December 1951, issue of Colliery Engineering. It is reported that since the Williamthorpe Colliery was changed from the Tromp system of medium cleaning to the Magneto-Motive method of medium control the opera-

Jan 1, 1953

By Orville R. Lyons

DISCUSSION Judson S. Hubbard (The Humphreys Investment Co., Denver)—In this very interesting paper several brief references are made to the Humphreys spiral, a device used for cleaning fine coal. In Table I, Plants 76 and 77, data are given on spiral performance treating Raton and Trinidad coal. The fine coal, as fed to the spiral in these instances, is actually a table middling, hence the more easily treated material was previously removed and a large number of particles were present which were difficult to clean. Mr. W. M. Bertholf of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co. presented a paper in February, 1946, Cleaning Table Middlings from a Coal Washery with the Humphreys Spiral Concentrator, from which I quote: "In considering the results of our tests it should be noted that the feed was our table middling, and that any real separation is a 'moral victory' as there is little material that could properly be called coal and practically no heavy rock, the consequences being that previous attempts to clean the middling have not at all been successful." Referring again to Table I, Plants 72, 73, 74, and 75, these data were obtained by Yancey and Geer and others and presented at the February 1950 Meeting, AIME, in a paper entitled Laboratory Performance Tests of the Humphreys Spiral as a Cleaner of Fine Coal. Results shown for those tests involve all particles from 8 mesh through the colloids, which admittedly is not an ideal situation for spiral feed if much refuse is contained in the —80 mesh or —100 mesh size range. As an illustration of the effect of treating too broad a size range, let us consider Plant No. 75, Kentucky No. 9 seam. Spiral feed was 8 mesh x 0. Now had this been 8x100 mesh the percentage of misplaced material would have been 8.0 pct instead of the reported 15.26 pct. Similar comparisons can be made on the other data presented with respect to the spiral. Other types of equipment show a similar trend in that whenever too fine a size is treated in a given unit process the percentage of misplaced material increases. Since the spiral is working near the finer end of the size range, it will sometimes be advantageous to treat the entire range of —8 mesh material rather than to deslime and make a fair showing on, say, the +80 or + I00 mesh. Desliming is subsequently done in any case in the dewatering or thickening operation. Results obtained by spiraling any given coal depend on factors too numerous and complex to discuss here, but there are strong indications that proper preparation of feed to the spiral can improve results obtained on some of the raw coals tested. This is clearly pointed out at the end of the aforementioned paper by Yancey and Geer. "The spiral is an extremely simple device which involves no moving parts and is constructed almost entirely of unmachined castings. Since it is such an uncomplicated mechanism, operation is simple and virtually foolproof. These characteristics, which go far toward insuring low cost operation, are attractive attributes in any coal cleaning unit." Certain equipment used in conjunction with the spiral has resulted in a decrease in the percentage of misplaced material, notably in actual practice the launder screen which is used to remove objectionable high ash fines from a spiral-washed coal product. Private correspondence with the U. S. Bureau of Mines has intimated that an additional yield of coal is possible by flotation of the spiral middling. Possible future improvements and developments may result from other methods now under consideration. Finally, some compromise must be made between the best metallurgical performance and the best practical or economical results. Mr. Lyons emphasizes in his summary this objective of overall economy in selection of equipment. G. B. Walker (American Cyanamid Co., Stamford, Conn.)—I had the pleasure of reviewing the draft of this paper and my curiosity was aroused by the data given for Tromp plants, in that all of the examples shown appeared to be 2-product separations, whereas all the Tromp plants with which I am familiar have been 3-product units. The data given for plants No. 101 and 102 appear to be taken from Tromp's brochure on his process and represent the results obtained at the Dominale plant in Holland which was operated for many years by Mr. Tromp. The plant, which was designed to treat 58 tons per hr, was sampled while treating 35 tons per hr of 3Y4x-in. coal. Example 101 appears to conform to what would result if the middling product were calculated into the refuse product, while Example 102 represents the calculation of the middling into the coal product. It is believed that Examples 103 and 104 represent the operation of the Willem-Sophie Mine in Holland recalculated on the same basis. In checking the English examples given by numbers 14, 15, 16, and 17, the same procedure seems to have been followed. These results have, apparently, been taken from an article in Colliery Engineering in August 1941, describing the initial operation of the Williamthorpe Colliery of the Hardwick Colliery Co. Two vessels are employed in this plant, one to treat soft coal and one to treat hard coal. Example No. 14 presents the results that could be obtained from the soft coal bath if the middling were calculated into the refuse, and Example 15 the results when the middling is calculated into the coal. Examples 16 and 17 represent the same expedient in the case of the hard coal bath. Of interest to this discussion is the fact that during the past year the Simon-Carves Engineering Co. in England has installed in the Williamthorpe plant their new "Sim-Car" medium cleaning system which is based on magnetic extraction and control and which is licensed under the Heavy-Media Separation Processes patents by the American Zinc, Lead and Smelting Co. This system has been described in the December 1951, issue of Colliery Engineering. It is reported that since the Williamthorpe Colliery was changed from the Tromp system of medium cleaning to the Magneto-Motive method of medium control the opera-

Jan 1, 1953

By J. D. Ridge

The geologic setting and mineral relationships of seven European massive sulfide deposits that more or less conform to the bedding of the largely noncal-careous sedimentary rocks and/or bedded volcanics in which they are found are considered here. These orebodies consist largely of massive beds or lenses of sulfides usually surrounded by halos of disseminated sulfides and distorted by tectonic activity. The formations containing these deposits have been metamorphosed in varying degrees at times subsequent to their lithification. The ore-forming process is thought to be essentially volcanic, with the ore constituents being brought to the shallow-water site of deposition through tectonic fissures from magma chambers at depth as gases or relatively concentrated hydrother-mal solutions. Certain European ore deposits of base metal sulfide have previously been considered to be of hydro-thermal or magmatic origin, but today a number of European mining geologists consider them to be syngenetically produced. In an effort to provide American geologists with some idea of the reasons behind this change in thought, the geological settings of seven of these deposits have been studied. These are: Ldkken, Meggen, Rammelsberg, Ergani-Maden, Outokumpu, Boliden and Roros. These deposits lie in bedded rocks that have undergone metamorphism from causes not universally agreed upon; most of the formations were originally shales, and may have been intercalated with limey and occasionally quartzitic beds, volcanic tuff, agglomerate, extrusive lavas and usually basic intrusives. Deposits of the conformable type, however, are not confined to these rock types but may be in calcareous and associated igneous rocks or almost entirely in volcanics. These deposits may be closely associated in space with igneous rocks that, again, are usually basic types. Although the ages of the enclosing rocks range from mid-Precambrian (Boliden and Outokumpu) to Eocene (Ergani-Maden), the bulk of them are Paleozoic, with two (Meggen, and eammelsberg) being upper middle Devonian and two (LØkken and RØros) being Cambro-Ordovician. Geographically, two are in West Germany, four in Scandanavia and one in Turkey. Of the seven deposits, six are mined for copper, with three of these also producing zinc, and two lead; one is mined for zinc and minor lead. In the discussions of the seven conformable deposits that follow, I have attempted to present as uniform a treatment as their varying characters will permit. For each deposit, I have considered the stratigraphy of the area, its major structural characteristics, the form of the orebodies, their mineral content, and the origin of the ore. In the last of these subdivisions, I have presented only the viewpoint of those who believe the ores to have been formed by syngenetic processes, processes that went on at the same time as those which produced the beds that enclose the ores but that are not, in the deposits in question, thought to have been sedimentary in the strict sense of the term. The materials of which these orebodies are composed, it is suggested, did actually collect by falling through sea water to the floor of that portion of the sea in which they accumulated. The ore constituents, however, are believed by a considerable number of European geologists to have been added to the sea water from intratelluric sources, probably igneous magma chambers, as exhalations — hydrothermal solutions or volcanic gases. The effect of the encounter with sea water on these ejected gases or water-rich vapors was to precipitate their potentially solid constituents with great rapidity; they were deposited so quickly, in fact, that the amounj of normally accumulated mechanical or chemical sediment deposited over the same period of time was essentially negligible. The ores formed in this manner, however, are generally interbedded with normal sediments or with lava flows, or with any combination of these two types of rock-forming materials. Such departures as these deposits may have from their original mineral content and attitude are thought to be directly related to the degree of dynamic or static metamorphism that they may have undergone after their accumulation. I have not attempted here to present alternate hypotheses to that of so-called exhalative sedimentation although, of course, such exist and, in my

Jan 1, 1963

By L. L. Melton, W. T. Malone

Fluid mechanics research conducted with non-Newtonian fluid systems now permits prediction of the behavior of these fluid systems in both laminar and turbulent modes of flow through circular pipes. Present work concerns non-Newtonian fluid systems currently used in the hydraulic fracturing process. During fracturing treatments, an unsteady-state condition may frequently be encountered arising from. the reaction rate of a chemical additive. This condition must be evaluated in order to predict the actual behavior of a particular fluid during field application. Design and operation of the apparatus used to determine fluid-flow behavior permit obtaining data under such non-equilibrium conditions. This paper shows methods used to obtain rheology measurements, develop hydraulic relationships and evaluate chemical reactions producing unsteady-state conditions. Engineering application of this research is illustrated by employing measured rheological values and developed hydraulic retationships to produce frictional pressure loss (psi/100 ft) us flow rate (bbl/min) charts of common tubing and casing sizes for an example fracturing fluid. How these charts and chemical reaction rate information are then combined to predict actual turbulent hydraulic behavior during unsteady-state field conditions is also discussed INTRODUCTION Many fluids used in hydraulic fracturing contain chemical additives which impart non-Newtonian fluid properties that may drastically alter their hydraulic behavior. Equally drastic alteration in wellhead pressure, injection rate and hydraulic horsepower requirement may result from these fluid properties. Prior research conducted to relate non-Newtonian fluid properties with hydraulic behavior has not as yet produced a universal relationship, particularly for the turbulent flow region. which of the many Possible non-Newtonian fluid properties is responsible has not been conclusively established. A systematic description, suggested by Metzner, of the many possible non-Newtonian fluid properties exhibited by real-fluid behavior, and a current discussion of theoretical and applied aspects of non-Newtonian fluid technoloy can be found in Handbook of Fluid Dynamics. f Little or no research has previously been attempted with fluids exhibiting time - dependent properties. Addition of chemicals during a fracturing treatment is often accomplished by continuously mixing and displacing the fluid. This produces a time-dependent effect or unsteady-state condition while the fluid is progressing through surface and wellbore conductors. This condition is due to solution or chemical reaction of the additive. Considerable departure from conventional methods of obtaining and interpreting data was found necessary to consider these conditions. Therefore methods were developed to obtain hydraulic behavior information under these complex, unsteady-state conditions. Relationships presented in this paper to predict hydraulic behavior of non-Newtonian fluids in circular pipes were obtained by constructing and operating a small pipeline apparatus in the manner of a pilot-plant study. These relationships are suggested as scaleup equations and are not proposed as fundamental rheological parameters. While perhaps deficient from a fundamental research viewpoint, a pilot-plant study does permit the determination and convenient evaluation of variables pertinent to a process. A pilot-plant study can result in a valid engineering application procedure even when fundamental relationships are still undefined. An excellent series of articles by Bowen has appeared in the chemical engineering literature.2-8 These give a thorough review of proposed hydraulic relationships and their limitations for non-Newtonian fluid behavior in circular pipes. A graphical method is presented to scale up data for a fluid exhibiting an anomalous hydrau1ic behavior in the turbulent flow region. Considerable assistance has been obtained from these articles to interpret the anomalous behavior noted during this investigation. These articles also provided assurance that a pilot plant is a practical approach to evaluate the hydraulic behavior of non-Newtonian fracturing fluids. _____________

Jan 1, 1965

By J. B. Clemmer, P. E. Churchward, C. Rampacek

A cyclic method for processing manganese ores using sodium sulphate as the basic reagent is described. Sodium sulphate is electrolyzed in a diaphragm cell to give an anolyte-containing agentisdescribed.Sodiumsulphuric acid and a catholyte-containing iselectrolyzedincaustic soda, a part of which is carbonated in a cyclic manner to form soda ash. The reduced ore is leached with the anolyte to dissolve the manganese and the impurities are precipitated by addition of catholyte. Manganese in the pregnant todissolvethemanganeseandtheimpuritiessolution is precipitated as synthetic rhodochrosite with a carbonated catholyte, and sodium sulphate is regenerated. Calcining the manganese carbonate gives a high grade product and the carbon dioxide is returned to the carbonation step. The results of laboratory tests using cells equipped with synthetic-fiber diaphragms and permselective membranes, which permit transfer of anions or cations during electrolysis, are described. A METHOD which has been considered for pro-cessing manganese ores under emergency conditions to recover a product suitable for smelting to ferromanganese involves reductive roasting of the ore for leaching with dilute sulphuric acid followed by precipitation of the manganese from the purified pregnant solution with sodium carbonate. Although the process is operable and involves no novel or untried steps, it is noncyclic in regard to reagents. Research seemed warranted to determine if a cyclic process could be developed by electrolyzing the sodium sulphate formed during precipitation of the manganese with soda ash to regenerate sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide. Reduced ore would be leached with acid anolyte to dissolve the manganese. The iron, alumina, and other dissolved impurities would be precipitated with the caustic catholyte, and the manganese in the purified pregnant solution would be precipitated as artificial rhodochrosite with carbonated catholyte to regenerate simultaneously sodium sulphate for electrolysis. Waste boiler gas and CO, from calcining the manganese precipitate would be recycled for carbonation of the caustic catholyte. There is a surprising lack of data in the technical literature on diaphragm electrolysis of sodium sulphate. One of the more comprehensive papers, by Atwell and Fuwa, describes the problem involved in electrolyzing byproduct sodium sulphate from the viscose process with particular regard to the design and operation of asbestos diaphragm cells. Frisk' also investigated electrolysis of sodium sulphate from viscose-spinning baths to recover caustic soda and sulphuric acid. The objective in these investigations was to produce, by electrolysis and evaporation, a concentrated caustic-soda solution and a sulphuric-acid solution low in sodium sulphate. Because of these requirements, the process was not too attractive despite a favorable yield of caustic and acid with a reasonable power consumption. Because strong acid and base are not required for processing manganese ores and nonelectrolyzed sodium sulphate is not objectionable in either reagent, the present problem was somewhat simpler than that of these investigators. The purpose of this report is to summarize briefly the results of laboratory electrolysis of commercial sodium sulphate in diaphragm cells of different types and the application of the acid and caustic for processing manganese ores in a cyclic manner. Electrolysis in Permeable Diaphragm Cells The principal problem in electrolyzing sodium sulphate in a permeable diaphragm cell is to prevent mixing of the acid and base formed in the anode and cathode compartments. It is not enough to separate the anolyte and catholyte by a single diaphragm. A three-compartment cell in which the sodium-sulphate solution is fed to the center compartment and flows through the permeable diaphragms to the anode and cathode compartments is more efficient electrically. Diaphragms should be porous enough to allow flow of solution to outer compartments but tight enough to prevent gross mixing of the anolyte and catholyte. In addition to being resistant to acid and alkali, the diaphragms should offer minimum resistance to the flow of current. It is also important that the electrolyte contain a high concentration of sodium sulphate to furnish an abundance of sodium and sulphate ions and thereby decrease the current carried by hydrogen and hydroxyl ions. A practical limitation of sodium-sulphate concentration is imposed by the decreased solubility of sodium sulphate with decreasing temperature. At 20°C, a concentration of 200 g per liter sodium sulphate can be maintained. Little is gained in conductivity by using a concentration greater than 200 g per liter. The small-scale continuous electrolysis tests were made in a 12x12 in. open-top bakelite cell equipped

Jan 1, 1956

By A. E. Wells, H. O. Hofman, R. P. Reynolds

A Discussion of the Paper of H. O. Hofman, R. P. Reynolds and A. E. Wells, read by title at the London Meeting, July, 1906 ; presented at the New York Meeting, April, 1907, and printed in Bi-Monthly Bulletin, No. 13, January, 1907, pp. 37 to 52. GEORGE A. PACKARD, Boston, Mass. (communication to the Secretary*) :-The very interesting results obtained by Prof. Hofman and his assistants came to my attention when I had temporarily assumed charge of the metallurgical department of the Missouri School of Mines, and had found it, pending the completion of a new building, lacking a furnace in which to roast ore preparatory to the customary lead blast-furnace run. An attempt at lime-roasting had been already determined upon, but the use of a charge which would make a slag of definite composition was a new idea. The results following were obtained by Messrs. Aubrey Fellows, J. C. Long, E. R. Wash, and Dr. T. C. Tseung, under my supervision. It is regretted that the data are not more complete; but the work was done simply incidentally to securing the desired ore for the blast-furnace, with no idea of obtaining any results of especial interest. It is submitted because of the metallic lead obtained, no notice of which has been seen elsewhere. The ore was an aggregate of several lots of concentrates, apparently from Missouri ores. The analysis follows, with that of the limestone and sandstone used, as far as made:. Ore, SiO2, 3.04; Fe, 0.77; CaO, 2.53; Pb, 68.74; Zn, 5.77; S, 13.9 per cent.; limestone, SiO2, 1.0 ; CaO, 54.35 per cent.; sandstone, SiO2, 99.8 per cent. The converter was made in the shops from a sheet of No. 14 iron riveted in the shape of a truncated cone, 20 in. in diameter at the top, 15 in. at the bottom and 22 in. high. A grate of No. 8 iron, 17 in. in diameter, with 130 s-in. holes placed at about 1.25-in. centers, was held in place by the shape of the

Jul 1, 1907

By Gregory L. Gullord

In September, 1975, production was begun at the new milling facility of ASARCO Incorporated, the Young Mill. The mill is located adjacent to the Young Mine 35 km (22 miles) east of Knoxville, Tennessee. The Young Mill replaced the obsolete Mascot Mill which had been operating since 1913. The basic flow sheet of Mascot was retained for the construction of the Young Mill, with a 20% increase in capacity included in the design. The Young Mill is capable of processing 7710 - t/d (8500 stpd) of crude ore from three underground mines (Young, Immel and Coy) yielding 300 - t/d (330 stpd) of 63% zinc concentrate. The Young Mill is unique in that 92.5% of the ore milled is recovered as saleable products, including zinc concentrate, construction aggregate, sand and agricultural limestone. Processing at the Young Mill is divided into five basic stages: two-stage crushing, heavy media separation, grinding-flotation, concentrate filtering and drying, and limestone by-products recovery. The ore bodies are located in the Knox formation, which consists of primary dolomite, secondary dolomite and limestone with silicas in the form of chert and jasperoid. The zinc mineralization occurs as an exceptionally pure sphalerite. The ore contains an occasional abundance of pyrite and traces of fluorite and barite. TWO STAGE CRUSHING Ore enters the crushing section from two points. The Young Mine ore is hoisted into a 816 ton (900 st) bin which feeds a 1.52m (60 in) conveyor via a 1.52 m (60 in) vibrating feeder. The Immel ore is trucked 10 km (6 miles) by an independent contractor and weighed on automatic recording truck scales at the entrance to the property.

Jan 1, 1977

By Norman Goss

IT is generally agreed that cold-working mechanically refines the grains into smaller fragments and with continued working these are oriented with certain crystallographic directions bearing a relation to the direction in which the metal is worked. Some of the energy expended on the metal during plastic deformation appears in the form of heat, but a very small portion remains in the metal as stored energy. The entropy, specific heat capacity, temperature at which recrystallization will just begin, density, ductility, elasticity, tensile strength, and resistance to corrosion are affected. These properties have been studied extensively and some of the changes in the physical properties due to cold-working were attributed to lattice distortion.1-8 The broadening of the K. lines on the X-ray diffraction diagrams of plastically deformed metals is believed to indicate lattice distortion, and consequently the existence of internal stresses. The evidence supporting this theory rests solely upon the observed experimental fact that the dif-fraction lines are broadened and the K a doublets are completely diffused. Elam9 has reviewed the matter of lattice distortion in relationship to the hardening of metals by plastic deformation. The X-ray diagrams of plastically deformed metals differ in general from annealed metals. The hardening of a metal was believed due to lattice distortion.9 The resolu-tion of the doublet is lost when a metal is cold-worked and the Lane spots are elongated. At one time this elongation was thought to indicate the elastic bending of the crystal planes. However, more careful work showed that the asterism was due to new orientations developed within the fragmented grains during plastic deformation. Some theories attrib-uted the hardening to fragmentation of the grains into smaller units.

Jan 1, 1940

By Hiroshi Kato, Shin’ichi Nagashima, Hiroshi Takechi

The preferred orientations detleloped during cold rolling, annealing, and hot rolling of low-carbon steel sheets have been investigated by means of an inverse pole figure technique. And X-ray line profile meas-urerrlents were made for the study of the factor which causes the textural changes between cold-rolled and recrystallized sheets. From ND (sheet normal divection) and RD (rolling direction) inverse Pole figures tlze axis detisity change with increasing cold reduction was measured and the Preferred orientations were analyzed. These results can be explained by crystal rotation due to slip during rolling deformation. The ND axis density change during annealing of cold-rollitig sheets is contrary to the change observed in the case of rolling. It was found that the orientation dependency of stored strain energy resulting from cold rolling apparently corresponds to the textural changes during recrystallization. The texture in hot-rolled sheets was found to be influenced by finishing tenlperatltre. In a sheet kol-rolled below the Ar, temperature a significant differernce in texture between the surface and central layers was obtained, the former having {hkl}(111} and {110 )(uvw) orientations and the latter having {pqr}( 110) orientation. A large number of investigations1 6 have been made on the textures of iron and low-carbon steel sheets, and, since it was shown7 13 that preferred orientations are closely related to deep drawability of steel sheets, studies14" 7 on the influence of production processes upon textures have been made from the standpoint of industrial interest. Generally, the textures in low-carbon steel sheets have several components of preferred orientations, but the overlapping of poles makes it difficult to analyze texture quantitatively from pole figures. On the other hand, an inverse pole figure directly expresses quantitative values of components of preferred orientations as the density of a certain sample axis with respect to the crystallite coordinates. Such a texture representation is desirable for a study of deep drawability. The purpose of the present work is to use both inverse and conventional pole figures, with emphasis on the former, to clar~fy the textural changes ~n low-carbon steel sheets by the production processes of hot rolling, cold rolling, and annealing. And the factor causing the textural changes during annealing is studied using an X-ray diffraction line profile technique. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Sheet specimens for study of cold rolling and annealing textures were taken from a hot-rolled strip of rimmed steel 2.7 mm thick. The chemical composition is shown in Table I. Although the study of cold-rolling textures requires a suitable material with random orientation, it is difficult to produce a perfect random one. But the used specimens, obtained from the hot-rolled strip with a finishing temperature higher than Ar3, were nearly random, such as shown in Fig. 15. These were cold-rolled to various reductions by a 4-high rolling mill with 150-mm-diam work rolls and 300-mm-diam backup rolls. The influence of hot-rolling conditions such as finishing and coiling temperatures on textures of hot-rolled strips was studied. The chemical compositions of these hot coils are given in Table I1 and the hot-rolling conditions are given in Table 111. inverse Pole ~i~ure -~easurement. Two methods for determining inverse pole figures with high precision have been proposed. The first, by Jetter et a1.,18 consists of obtaining mean densities of divided regions in a unit stereographic triangle by solving simultaneous linear equations to approximate the integral relation between conventional and inverse pole figures. The second, proposed by ~oe'~-'~ and Bunge,22'23 consists of determining an expanded series of spherical surface harmonics which express axis densities from several sets of pole distribution data. Both methods require laborious numerical calculations which make them unsuitable for practical use. However, the axis densities of the locations corresponding to low Miller indices in a unit stereographic triangle can be obtained

Jan 1, 1969

By J. D. Forrester

Many have been prone to credit the decline of professional interest in some branches of mineral industry education to the industrialists and other agencies who use our graduates. We hear the cry that industrial salaries are too low, opportunities for advancement do not exist, and the mineral industry specifically and generally is not interested in the engineer's efforts. Perhaps the time now has come when we should "dress-ranks," examine our practices, and publicize and encourage advanced technical training instead of laying all our troubles elsewhere. There can be no doubt but that industry is interested and stands ready and willing to co-operate. This is demonstrated by the numerous grants-in-aid and co-operative industrial projects which have been made available to those relatively few schools which have been encouraging graduate study and research. There is no dearth of research problems in any of the mineral industry fields and the sooner we realize the great opportunities for constructive, technical research in all areas of our profession the sooner we will reap the benefits of our engineering enterprises by closer liaison and broader understanding with industry. An analysis is offered here of the status of graduate work and research in various phases of mineral industry education in the United States. It is

Jan 1, 1949

By S. Arthur Krom

(New York Meeting, February, 1912.) THE James diagonal-plane slimer is specially adapted to handle the finest slimes, but it will also handle sands as coarse as 40-mesh. The saving efficiency of this machine is due to the original construction of the deck, and to the rapid reciprocating movement imparted to it by the head-motion. The deck consists of a plurality of connected planes, having a certain fixed ratio of inclination one to another. These planes intersect each other diagonally to the stroke-line of the table and are arranged so as to give the pulp on the table a double treatment. This double concentration performed by the diagonal-plane deck produces cleaner concentrates and tailings than those obtained by the operation of two separate machines. The action of the diagonal planes settles, combines, and holds all the concentrates in one compact mass, sharply defined from the gangue, and easily cut away without loss. Many slime-concentrating machines distribute the feed-pulp for a distance of 4 or 5 ft. only, and upon a very limited settling-surface. This results in a thick, heavy deposit, from which it is impossible to stratify the values and wash, away the gangue, the resulting products being dirty concentrates, and tailings carrying high values. The diagonal-plane slimer distributes the feed-pulp for a distance of 10 ft., and upon a settling-surface having an area of 40 sq. ft.; in other words, it spreads the pulp thinly on the table, which allows the metallic values to settle through the gangue quickly, forming a bottom stratum from which the thinly-distributed overlying stratum. of gangue is easily brushed away by the feed-water without disturbing the underlying concentrates. Referring to Fig. 1, plane A is the main settling-section, of the table. The feed pulp flows gently down this plane and is

Jun 1, 1912

By J. W. Fuller

During the last 20 years, experimenters have sought to utilize pulverized coal in boiler plants, but refractory and slag troubles have usually overbalanced any gains in efficiency that were obtained. These troubles were caused largely by lack of knowledge of the proper methods of coal preparation and lack of a furnace design that would be adaptable to pulverized-coal firing. When this information was obtained the results were so much more satisfactory that within the last 5 years approximately 80,000 boiler hp. have been installed in plants ranging from 1000 to 20,000 boiler hp. rated capacity, which are operating at an average of 174 per cent. of rating. The first commercial installation for burning pulverized coal under boilers was made at the Parsons shops of the M. K. & T. railroad in 1916. Of eight 250-hp. water-tube boilers thus fitted, six were operated continuously for 3 yr., when oil was obtained at such a low price as to warrant its use. Since then, this plant has been operating alternately on pulverized coal and oil, depending on prevailing prices. Recently gas has been discovered within 20 mi. of this plant, so that this fuel may also be used. No change in furnace design was made when changing from pulverized coal to oil or gas firing. One of the principal advantages of this method of firing is its ability to utilize, with maximum efficiency, all kinds of coal, irrespective of quality or physical characteristics. In fact, quite a number of the present pulverized-coal installations were made for the purpose of utilizing coal that could not be marketed or used in any other way. The Pacific Coast Coal Co., at Black Diamond, Wash., formerly hand fired the boilers, using approximately 125 tons of prepared steam-size coal daily. The Black Diamond steam coal is the best quality of coal for steaming purposes mined in that section of the country, and there is a market for all that can be produced. By installing a pulverizing plant, it was possible to substitute coal of a size and quality that had no commercial value, so that 125 tons daily of the best steam coal formerly used at the mines is now marketed. This company made a similar installation, at its New Castle, Wash., mine with approximately similar results. Each of these two plants has a

Jan 1, 1922

By FRANK COLE

THE territory covered in this discussion includes all the states west of the Mississippi river. Agriculture is expanding each year in this section, but until recent years the application of commercial fertilizers as an aid to crop production was not practised to any great extent. The use of commercial fertilizers has increased somewhat, but is still on a small basis as compared with the tonnages used else- where in the United States. During 1928 these western states used 665,100 tons of all classes of fertilizer as compared 'with 7,933,600 tons used in the whole United States; or this western area, compromising near- ly two-thirds the land area, uses about 5 per cent of the total fertilizer. To show how large a tonnage one state may consume, North Carolina for the year 192s used 1,349,360 tons of commercial fertilizer or about twice the amount used by 22 western states.

Jan 1, 1930

LIST OF MEMBERS, ASSOCIATES AND JUNIOR ASSOCIATES ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED ||Abad, Leopoldo F, College of Min, Univ of California Berkeley, Cal '23 ||Abarquez, Ramon F, Met, Bureau of Seience Manila, P I '24 ||Abbey, Robert Graham, Student, Case School of Applied Science Cleveland, Ohio '21 Abbort, A N , Mines Supt , Mazapil Copper Co , Ltd Concepcion del Oro, Zacatecas, Mexieo '23 Abbott, Clarence E , Gen'l Supt , Iron Mines Div , Tenn Coal, Iron & R R Co , 1405 Minnesota Ave , Bessemer, Ala '04 Abbott, Louis Benjamin, Chief Engr, Consolidation Coal Co, Elkhorn Div Jenkins, Ky '15 Abbott, Robert R , Met Engr , Peerless Motor Car Co Cleveland, Ohio '12 ||Abbott, Wells Osborn, Ray Consolidated Copper Co Hayden, Ariz '23 Abeel, George H, Jr, Cons Min Engr 4812 W 17th St, Los Angeles, Cal '18 Abel, Albert E, Asst to Pres, Valley Mould & Iron Corpn Sharpsville, Pa '19 Abeloff, Miran S Address Wanted '21 Abernathy, G E, Kansas State Teachers College Pittsburg, Kans '20 Abey, Hiroshi, Min & Met Engr. Takata & Co, 2 Yeirakucho, Niehome, Kolimachi-ku, Tokyo, Japan '17 ||Aborn, Robert H 24 Groveland St, Auburndale, Mass '19 Abouchar, Sylvain Sley, Min Engr & Geol , Care of S H Sekaly, 13 Rue El Nimr, Cario, Egypt '17 Abraham, Arthur W 1828 N Alexandria Ave, Los Angeles, Cal '20 Abrahams, A. I 115 East 82nd St. New York, N Y '14 ||Abrahamson, C. Walter, Min Engr, Brule Min Co Stambaugh, Mich '21 Abrams, Charles Jackson Columbia Bldg, Spokane, Wash '21 Abrams, David H, Min Engr, S E Dickey & Co, 809-11 Johnstown Trust Bldg, Johnstown, Pa '20 Acker, E 01C, Met 128 East Washington Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa '86 Acker, William L, Diamond Drill Contractor Mears Bldg, Scranton, Pa '18 Ackerman, Ernest R, Pres Lawrenee Portland Cement Co Plainfield, Union Co, N J '15 Adachi, Jinzoo 11 Shiba Park, Shiba-Ku, Tokyo, Japan '88 Adachi, Yuich, Meeh Engr, Anzan Steel Works, Anzan, South Manchuria, China, (Via Dairen) '21

Jan 1, 1923

By R. J. Brown

Design of a submarine pipeline system is governed by many factors, one of which is the effect of transverse horizontal currents on the pipeline structure itself Although this feature alone can be of utmost importance to the life span and stability of the underwater pipeline, it is usually the least recognized, with these hydro-dynamic forces being either completely overlooked or grossly underestimated. In an attempt to supply the methods and means for stabilization of sub-marine pipelines, much capital has been spent by pipeline companies. Design criteria incorporated by these organizations extend over a broad spectrum of engineering with bases varying from pure theory to cut and dry methods. A history of numerous failures has substantiated the postulate that many of these submarine pipelines have been underdesigned from the stability standpoint. By the same token, equally as many have been excessively overdesigned with resultant excess expenditures. An attempt has been made in this paper to establish the magnitudes of these hydrodynamic forces by measuring the lateral current-induced differential pressure distribution around the periphery of the submarine pipeline. INTRODUCTION The expenditure of money for research by corporations obviously requires beneficial results to justify the investment. One of the functions of the engineer is first to make the problem known and then to provide a means of solution at the least possible cost. The initial procedure is to investigate all pertinent published technical articles on the subject to determine if this problem has been previously solved. If resolution of this problem is not obtainable, the next course of action is to evaluate through experiments these forces and their magnitudes. On the specific subject of drag and lift, the accumulation of data is provided from three separate and distinct sources: from experience, from theoreticians and through experimental observations. The experience source has proved costly with money wasted either because of underdesign and failure or excessive expenditures for overdesign, and has not been sufficient to form a definite conclusion on these hydrodynamic forces. The pure theoretician is often not completely cognizant of the situation and his works bear little adaptation to the real problem. The experimentalist has his own problems with regard to obtaining results from small-scaled models and successfully adapting them to the larger prototypes. Each method has its own advocates who diligently adhere to their own separate routes as being the only means of resolving this problem. However, a review of the various methods of analysis leads one to the conclusion that if the advantages of all three are combined, a reasonable solution to this problem can be reached. Briefly then, the problem is to obtain the magnitudes of the forces on the submarine pipeline subjected to a lateral current by investigations of previous design considerations, by a study of existing theoretica1 data and by appropriate experimentation. This paper deals mainly with obtaining experimental data and the interweaving of theoretical and experience factors for resolution of these forces. APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE These tests were performed in 1961 at Collins Construction Co.'s main office near Port Lavaca, Tex. Test equipment consisted of a steel tank 3 ft high by 4 ft wide by 40 ft long, with several pumps circulating the water through the tank via suction lines from the downstream portion of the tank and discharging from the pumps directly into the upstream end of the tank. For reduction of turbulence, a wire section was constmcted in the upstream portion and straightening vanes in the form of pipes, screens, etc., were used to reduce the vortex and eddy action in the tank (Fig. 1). A venturi was built at the test specimen for obtaining velocity sufficient to simulate actual conditions. This full-scale test was initiated to eliminate the error introduced in modeling and obtain a truer picture of forces actually encountered. Six- and 10-in. specimens were prepared by

Jan 1, 1967

By R. J. P. Lyon, A. E. Prelat, H. Lawrence

Introduction In 1977, the US Bureau of Mines awarded a grant to the state of South Carolina to explore the possibility of using Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) data as an aid in monitoring surface mining activities in selected counties of the state. Work had been done in Aiken County prior to the grant by USBM and state personnel at the EROS Data Center using both the GE Image 100 and ESL IDIMS systems. The initial work on the 1:100 consisted of locating and measuring the areas of various kaolin mines. The results were excellent on location, identification, and accurate area measurements of several mines as compared with aerial photos of each mine. The effort also included locating and measuring the size of all mines (including sand and gravel) within two US Geological Survey (USGS) 7 % - min quadrangle maps. Line printer overlays using the IDIMS equipment and software resulted in the location of all known mines within an estimated error less than zt 91.4 m. Mine acreage was calculated by counting each symbol (which represented one pixel) and multiplying by 1.1 (the number of acres per pixel). [Fig. 1] shows a portion of one quadrangle overlay. [Table 1] gives a comparison of acreage measured for several mines from the 1-100 and IDIMS system vs. aerial photo measurements. The success of the preliminary work resulted in the South Carolina Land Resources Conservation Commission submitting a proposal to USBM for funding to expand the scope of work to other mineral mining operations within the state and determine if Landsat Imagery could be used to accurately locate and measure mining and reclamation activity on a continuing basis. Three separate tasks were proposed for selected kaolin mines in Aiken County: Task 1, to measure changes in active mine developments over the period 1974-77; Task 2, to measure reclamation activity, and, if time permitted, seasonal changes in mine signatures over the same period of time; and Task 3, to classify one complete mining operation (i.e., differentiate between active, spoil, overburden, water, reclaimed portions and surrounding terrain. The major effort was centered around J.M. Hubeis Richardson mine. Mining operations were progressing in a northerly direction and included three areas of reclamation: one prior to 1974; one started during early 1974; and one reclaimed during 1976. A discussion of all work done under the grant is available in the March 1979 Final Report listed under References. Computer compatible tapes (CCTs) containing MSS data from Landsat Path 18, Row 37, were purchased from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) covering the period February 1974 through January 1977. The MSS data were processed on the General Electric Image 100 using parallelepiped classification at the EROS Data Center's Data Analysis Laboratory, Sioux Falls, SD, and at the Stanford Remote Sensing Laboratory, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, utilizing both an unsupervised classification (ISOMIX) and a supervised classification (sequential discriminant analysis). Studies at Stanford University Remote Sensing Lab (SRSL). In Feburary 1977, initial work was begun at Stanford using the STANSORT computer program running on a DEC PDP-10 (Honey, Prelat, and Lyon, 1974). This software is fully interactive and designed to study Landsat CCT data at high resolution (small areas) on a pixel-by-pixel basis (Lyon, 1977). Unsupervised Classification. The initial step was to locate the Richardson mine on the positive print of the full Landsat scene from CCT 1644-15252, dated 6/17/74. This was relatively easy due to a large abandoned kaolin mine and a long narrow pond clearly visible in the scene. Two unsupervised classifications of the Richardson mine were run using ISOMIX clustering (Honey, Prelat and Lyon, 1974). (ISOMIX essentially follows the interactive clustering procedures of ISOCLS Kan, Holley, and Parker. 1973). Although the classifications were successfully accomplished, it was apparent from the TV display that the results did not clearly define the mine areas. A supervised classification would have to be made in order to clearly separate each portion of the mine. Supervised Classification. This classification was done using the Stepwise Discriminant Program (BMDO7M) which is part of the BIOMED package (Dixon, 1970) and involved the following steps: Training group populations were selected and the digital

Jan 1, 1982

By J. L. Gillson

THE big mass of anorthosite in the Lake Sanford district and the bodies of titaniferous magnetite that occur in a small area near the south margin of the mass have been described repeatedly, and the puzzling problems of the genesis of the rocks and ores have stimulated the deductive reasoning of geologists for a hundred years. Some of these men have taken a leading part1-15 in describing the anorthosite rock and forming hypotheses concerning its origin; some have contributed most to the study of the ore deposits;'"= and some have made classical Studies3,4,21-27 introducing a basic approach to the problems of the anorthosite rock and genesis of the titaniferous magnetites. Much of the writing on the problems of rock and ore genesis has been based on physical-chemical reasoning rather than on field and microscope observations of the rocks and ores. Most of these geologists conclude that the anorthosite was formed by true magmatic crystallization, involving previous settling or squeezing out of ferromagnesian minerals from the parent magma. The associated gabbro is a separate segregation or later intrusion, and the lighter colored and finer grained facies of the anorthosite is either a chilled border zone of the anorthosite or the result of granulation by crushing of the coarse, dark blue rock of the main mass. This blue rock, called the Marcy type, is named after the higest peak in the range. The finer grained and lighter colored rock is called the White-face, after another mountain appropriately named for a cliff colored by this facies of the anorthosite. In explaining the genesis of the ores the authors have reached no general agreement, but all consider them to be dominantly the result of magmatic processes rather than the result of replacement by pneu-matolytic or hydrothermal processes. However, in the conclusions of two authors, Osborne27 and Ste-phenson," the reader is told positively that the ore minerals were introduced after the wall rock was solid and also that the oxides are later than the silicates. This seems to mean that the ore came in as a later intrusion, like a dike, since Osborne speaks of filter pressing and later injection of a residual magma. Stephenson agrees in general with Osborne but disagrees with his conclusion that ore does not grade into country rock. Singewald22 calls in "mineralizers" to participate in magmatic deposition. Stephenson ends his paper with a statement that replacement was the dominant process for the introduction of ore with anorthosite. Hence both Singewald and Stephenson call on pneumato-lytic or hydrothermal processes to supplement magmatic crystallization from a silicate melt, but they cannot quite bring themselves to state that the orebodies formed in that way. In their conclusions the ores are still magmatic segregations and magmatic injections and—almost as an afterthought— "replacements." According to Bateman18 there was a gravitational accumulation process of the iron silicates and oxides, which were injected later. Rambere explains the ores entirely on physical-chemical theory, as does Evrard.17 Buddington and associates,10 in a paper presented to the Geological Society of America in 1953, believe the facts observed prove that the magnetite-ilmenite formed at magmatic temperatures. The present writer's conclusions, given here, were first presented in 1947 in Industrial Minerals and Rocks.= Since the papers of Ramberg, Bateman, and Buddington, published after 1947, gave no recognition to those conclusions that differ from their own, the writer has taken an opportunity to restudy the area in the field, and to examine a number of microscopic sections, and now presents the evidence more thoroughly than he had an opportunity to do in the

Jan 1, 1957

By Fred C., Bond

DETERMINATIONS of circulating load in a classifier operating in closed circuit with a grinding mill are usually made from screen analyses of the mill feed and classifier products. The percentage remaining on someone selected screen size must be used in the calculation, and, because of the wide variation in average particle size between the mill feed and classifier overflow, an accurate and representative result at the selected mesh is often difficult to obtain. To overcome this difficulty and reduce the time required in making the determination, I have devised a method which uses the liquid-solid relationship in the circuit rather than screen analyses. The quantities required for the calculation include only the usual dilution and feed tonnage measurements, which should be made regularly in the course of ordinary mill operation and, in addition, the amount of new water added to the classifier, or to the head of the mill with the new feed. If measurements are obtained on both of these quantities it is possible to check the calculated circulating load, and to calculate the percentage of moisture in the new feed to the mill; or, if the latter is known, to check the feed tonnage.

Jan 1, 1937

C. N. FEnner, New York City (communication to the Secretary) : A possible explanation of some of the' phenomena of amalgamation cited by Mr. Bayliss and others has occurred to me. We know that if, to a quantity of mercury, gold and silver are added until a putty-like paste is formed, and if this mass is spread on a flat surface and pressure is applied, a more fluid portion of the mercury will be squeezed out from the rest, carrying gold and silver with it. The proportion of gold to silver will depend, I think, upon various causes and conditions—the relative chemical affinity which gold and silver have for mercury; the amount of pressure used; the presence of other metals:

Jan 1, 1898