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By L. C. IlsLey, H. H. Clark

In various publications relating to safety in mining the Bureau of Mines has called attention to the hazards attending the use of openBame lamps. An open-flame lamp is a potential source of danger in any coal mine. It may start a fire in a dry mine or an explosion in a gaseous mine. The type of open-flame oil lamp now used in mines is the product of long evolution; its principal merit is simplicity. That such a light is unsafe in an atmosphere containing gas (methane) is evident, and Sir Humphrey Davy immeasurably increased safety in coal mines when he found means of protecting a lamp flame so that it would not readily ignite gas. The safety lamp, however, gives less light than the open-flame lamp, is not as simple in construction, is more cumbersome, and must De carried in the hand .. Consequently, some miners are reluctant to abandon the open-flame lamp for the safety lamp, and risk their own lives and the lives of their fellow workers with the one rather than to be hampered by the other. When small electric bulbs, with their clear, white light, and small electric storage batteries became available, the advantage of combining these elements for a miner's lamp seemed manifest. The combination looked simple and safe, but was soon found to have elements of danger and weakness peculiar to itself. The Bureau of Mines showed, in 1911, that the breaking of a miniature electric bulb in an inflammable mixture of gas and air might ignite the mixture, so that only the fragile glass of the lamp bulb might stand between the miner and injury or death. There Was also a possibility that sparks from the small battery would ignite gas, and the accidental spilling of the contents of a battery on the miner's clothing or skin was a possible source of injury. The first portable electric miner's lamps that were carried in the hand, or with the battery strapped to the back and the light carried on the head, were exceedingly crude and were designed without appreciation of the sources of danger. The possibility, however, of producing a safe and practical miner's lamp by the proper combination and design of the elements available promised to increase safety so greatly that the Bureau of Mines attemr>ted to stimulate better design and construction by careful investigations and the establishment of an approval system that would be an assurance to the miner and an advantage to the maker of the lamp. As a result various manufacturers submitted types of lamps, cords, and bulbs for test and cooperated with the bureau in efforts to so improve the safety features of these devices that the lamps would P&$ specific tests for approval.

Jan 1, 1917

By Paul S. Goodman

This report examines the feasibility of Employee Assistance Plans for the coal industry. Three issues are examined in detail. First, the prevalence of off-the-job factors such as alcoholism, drug abuse, and marital problems are examined in a sample of miners from the eastern, midwestern, and western underground coal fields. Then data were presented that examined the link between these off-the-job factors and behaviors critical to the mines such as absenteeism and turnover. Lastly, we examined the effectiveness of the major Employee Assistance Program in underground coal mining--the HELP Program. The report contains recommendations on whether coal mining companies should implement these programs and how these programs should be designed.

Jan 1, 1986

By Kenneth D. Winters

This Bureau of Mines report presents a Fortran IV computer program for the structural analysis of (1) protective canopies used in underground mines to protect equipment operators from roof falls and (2) rollover protective structures (ROPS) used in surface mines to protect equipment operators during vehicle overturn accidents. The program, entitled PLASTIC CANOPY, permits rapid and inexpensive calculation of the ultimate strength and deformation characteristics of a canopy for a variety of static loading conditions. The structure is modeled as a series of interconnected beam and/or plate elements. Stresses in, and displacements of, each structural element are computed and printed out at the yield strength of the canopy, at several intermediate load levels between the yield and ultimate strength of the canopy, and at the ultimate strength of the canopy. Other features of the program include prediction of buckling of a beam member under combined axial compression loading and bending, plotting of the input geometry of the structure, and plotting of the deformed shape of the loaded structure. Program description, input instructions, program listing, and four example problems are included.

Jan 1, 1979

By R. W. Stahl

Coal mining has been revolutionized by the continuous miner. This machine has replaced, or has combined into 1, 3 former operations: Cutting, blasting, and loading. During the 25-year period before this machine was introduced, advances had been made in transportation, but the actual "coal getting" remained virtually the same. As frequently occurs, the multiple-purpose continuous miner introduced a new hazard--more rapid liberation of methane. The coal output formerly obtained from 10 to 20 working places might now be obtained from 1. It is true that circulation of air was generally increased; but the bulk of this machine virtually precludes continuous flow of air across the face, where gas may accumulate. Apprehension about this possible hazard led the Bureau of Mines to test face atmospheres during operation; and Report of Investigations 5288, Methane Buildup During Cutting and Continuous Mining Operations (published in 1956), presents proof that real danger may be present in many otherwise well ventilated mines.

Jan 1, 1958

By E. L. Rawlins

The development of commercial natural-gas reserves in the Michigan stray sandstone horizon of central Michigan during the past few years has resulted in expansion of the natural-gas industry in that State. The location of the natural-gas reserves of Michigan in the general vicinity of domestic and industrial markets is of economic importance, and in supplying these markets with natural gas a reasonable knowledge of, the extent and availability of the reserves is needed in formulating regulations for drilling gas wells and producing natural gas in analyzing the feasibility of projects to construct natural-gas transmission lines, in promoting and developing markets for the domestic and industrial consumption of natural gas, and in solving many engineering and economic problems common to the natural-gas industry. The development of the natural-gas industry in Michigan has been related closely to the development of oil production. The potential oil production of Michigan is comparable with that in most of the eastern oil-producing States. The development of oil production probably will continue, especially in the central Michigan Basin area; and as wells are drilled to deep horizons in the search for oil, more knowledge will be obtained of the gas reserves in formations above the oil-bearing horizons.

Jan 1, 1936

By D. B. McGilvra

This paper, describing the mining practices and methods at the Black Rock mine, is one of a series of similar papers on mining methods in the various mines of the United States being prepared by the Bureau of Mines. The Black Rock mine is located in the northeast corner of the Butte district, about 3 miles from the center of the town of Butte, and is owned and operated by the Butte & Superior Mining Co.

Jan 1, 1930

By Frank Ruskey

This report describes a computer program devised by the Bureau of Mines to model coal-mining situations where one or more panels encounter oil or gas wells. The program seeks in several hundred trials to evade the wells if possible or to minimize their influence by shifting or skewing the mine plan and/or adjusting the centerline dimensions of the entryways. Upon completion of computations, the program sorts the hundreds of models which have been tested, and lists the 10 best with their associated parameters. It also draws a mine plan of the best configuration, showing the entryways and crosscuts along with the "lost" coal remaining in the barrier pillars surrounding the various wells.

Jan 1, 1972

By G. T. Krempasky

This report covers the installation and evaluation of lb reinforced concrete sets, 6 in each of 3 mines in the Goeur d'Alene mining district, Shoshone County, Idaho, and is the second of a series to determine the feasibility of a more permanent type of mine support. Closure measurements, where applicable, were made periodically of the concrete-set installations and were compared to the initial cross section of the sets. A different method of blocking was used at each test site; at one test site the type of blocking was changed several times during the test. Results from each test site are reported separately. No attempt was made to compare the cost of the concrete installations with the cost of other types of support used in the district. Such an evaluation of permanent types of support would require a longer period of time. At this time, tests are not complete enough to determine the applicability of underground concrete supports. However, results to date tend to confirm the general opinion that precast concrete mine supports could be used to advantage in openings that require support and must have long life, especially where decay of timber is an important factor.

Jan 1, 1963

By James W. Pennington

MERCURY, also widely known as quicksilver, ranks tenth in quantity in world output of nonferrous metals. However, its unusual and desirable combination of properties- liquid liquidity at ordinary temperatures, high density, uniform volume expansion, electrical conductivity, ability to alloy readily, high surface tension, chemical stability, and toxicity of its compounds -gives mercury an industrial and military importance out of proportion to the small physical size of the production industry. Although mercury has been known and used for over 20 centuries, until the 16th century consumption was small and chiefly in medicine. Since then mercury's applications have paralleled scientific advancements, kind current principal uses of mercury are in electrical apparatus, industrial and control instruments, agriculture, pharmaceuticals, and the electrolytic prepa¬ration of chlorine and caustic soda. Other materials may be substituted for mercury in come applications; yet, for those uses that require mercury's unusual combination of physical and chemical properties, there is no ideal substitute.

Jan 1, 1959

By T. E. Swigart

In the production of oil end gas, engineering methods have been applied less than in any other branch of the oil industry. While refineries, gasoline plants, pipe-line and other transportation systems, and even drilling wells to a great extent, take advantage of engineering skill, the tendency has been to assume that the handling of producing wells is merely a mechanical and routine matter. At present few companies employ engineers to study oil and gas production methods with a view of increasing the general efficiency of recovery, but in vie, of the advancement in other lines of the petroleum industry by the application of engineering principles, does it not seem likely that the production branch may benefit also by engineering studies? Engineering applied to the handling of producing wells falls under two general headings, - first, the efficient handling of wells from the time of their inception in order to obtain the greatest possible ultimate production, and, second, the rehabilitation of old properties that have been handled carelessly in their early lives. To date, the engineering work that has been done on oil production problems falls mostly in the second class. For example, the use of vacuum and the application of compressed air have proved successful in some instances in stimulating wells of low gas pressure. These methods are costly to apply and are adapted to small wells in which the gas is almost exhausted, or in which the original gas pressure is negligible. The experiments described in this paper fall under the first heading, as they were made with an idea of learning toe probable extent to which the gas production of an oil well can be curtailed while gas in the sand is still plentiful, and thus saved for doing work during the later period of a well's life. Because of the scope of the experiments, this paper does not include a discussion of back pressure on flowing wells or for purposes other than cutting down the gas produced with each barrel of oil.

Jan 1, 1922

By H. E. Hilliard

The Bureau of Mines investigated hydrometallurgical procedures for concentrating precious metals from a mechanically processed metal fraction of obsolete military electronic scrap. Feed material for the leaching procedures described in this report was the high-tension-separated metal concentrate obtained as a fraction from mechanically processing partially stripped electronic units. Initial pretreatment with a 20-wt-pct-NaOH solution solubilized most of the aluminum. After washing, the resulting residue was incinerated to destroy any organics attached to metal particles. The incinerated residue was leached with 20-vol-pct H2S04 solution using two methods, countercurrent pressure and ultrasonic-aided leaching to solubilize the base metals, predominantly copper. Silver was recovered from the base metal leach residue using 50-vol-pct HN03, and gold contaminated with several percent palladium was recovered from the silver leach residue using aqua regia. The impure silver and gold plus palladium products represent about 1.5 wt pct of the high-tension-separated metal concentrate. Included is a three-step process evaluation study of mechanical processing of general electronic scrap and two hydrometallurgical procedures for leaching high-tension-separated metallic concentrates obtained from the mechanical processing step. Process evaluation concluded that only mechanical processing is economically viable.

Jan 1, 1985

By R. Carson Dalzell

The use of nuclear fission for chemical process heat offers the special advantage of high temperature, limited only by materials of construction. The process heat may be supplied economically at elevated pressures, since no compression of combustion air is required. For the initial effort in developing a high-temperature reactor, the indirect cycle, using helium as the heat-transfer medium, was chosen. The major problems are the design of high-temperature fuel elements, construction of an exchanger to transfer heat to process streams in the range of 2,500° F., and development of compressors capable of recycling helium at 1,000° F. and above. A conceptual design of a nuclear reactor to furnish process heat for coal gasification has been made. Spherical fuel elements utilizing a graphite structure, impregnated with uranium carbide fuel, were chosen, as spheres offer the possibility of easier loading and unloading of the reactor. Calculations of pressure drop and gas-pumping power for the system are included.

Jan 1, 1959

By Frank E. Cash

The Bureau of Mines in its safety work has for a number of years advocated and recommended the use of permissible portable electric cap lamps for use in all mines. In the course of time required for the evolution from an unsatisfactory to an efficient and safe light, but encouraging increase in their use has been experienced in Alabama. As early as 1916, small installations of these safer lamps were made or an experimental basis by several operating companies, and the first complete mine installation eras made at the Virginia mine of the Gulf States Steel Co., July 1, 1918. From the experiments in 1316 and the complete equipment of the first mine in 1918 gradual progress has been made until there are now 30 installations with 10 operating companies; as a result 20 mines have been put entirely and 5 partly on, closed lights, and 3 companies equip their engineering departments; two installations of closed lights are maintained by other companies for emergency use. One of the mines partly on the electric cap lamp is an ore mine - the only one in Alabama (and one of the very few in the United States) that uses closed lights. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The full cooperation of operating officials, lapmen, and lamp representatives was given in the collection of the data in this report, and is hereby acknowledged.

Jan 1, 1928

By Raymond B. Ladoo

[Inquiries are frequently received by the Bureau of Minas relative to occurrence, mining, treatment and utilization of the natural hydrocarbons' such as gilsonite, elaterate, wurtzilite, grahamite, and ozokerite although have been known and used for many years, they are not yet well understood and the amount of recent literature dealing with them as comparatively small. This paper is intended merely to summarize the present knowledge The natural hydrocarbons included in this series are gilsonite, elaterite, wurtzilite, glance pitch, manjak, grahamite, albertite, arid ozokerite and many other minor varieties. With the exception of ozokerite and the other mineral waxes, then all more or less resemble asphalt in that they are dark brown or black bituminous substances of organic origin, generally with a resinous luster. Ozokerite usually light an color with a waxey luster, is closely allied to the others of the series, but is usually considered separately, Unfortunately authorities differ as to nomenclature so that determinations of physical and chemical properties from different sources may riot be readily compared. Abraham Herbert, Asphalts and Allied Substances, 1918, 606 pp. has made one of the most detailed studies of these subjects in recent years, and his classification is used in the main. The following definitions are given by him]

Jan 1, 1920

By H. B. Hill

Virtually from the date of its discovery in December 1928 the Oklahoma City oil and gas field, Oklahoma County, Okla., has attracted national and international attention. The history of the field has been associated closely with rules and regulations pertaining to production control and proration practices. Early development was rapid, and Oklahoma City soon attained the distinction of being the first major field in which the producing wells were over a mile in depth. Before the structural features of the reservoir had been disclosed every outpost well was considered a "wildcat", so complex appeared the underground geology, The wells not only were deep and the reservoir pressures high, but the production from the early wells was a high A.P.I. gravity oil, accompanied by large volumes of gas. Several "blow-outs" and fired occurred during the early development, and the close proximity of these now unusual events to a large city gave the field much publicity, both local and national. Later, when its production threatened to demoralize the market for oil and its products, the Oklahoma City field again attracted wide publicity. The then little understood geology of the underground reservoir and the diversity of ownership of the land overlying the producing structure made orderly development and production difficult to enforce. Proration was enforced with difficulty., and the, rate of production from the field continued to increase until, on August 4, 1931, martial law was declared in all prorated fields of the State, and most of the wells in the Oklahoma City field wore shut n. On October 9, 1931, permission was granted t o reopen and prod e the wells in the Oklahoma City field. The order permitting production of the wells provided that during the period beginning October 10 and extending to October 20, 1931, all wells in the field that hid not produced more oil than specified under the earlier proration orders and that had been shut in for the required 55-day period were permitted to produce 5 percent of their last potential during that 10-day period. On November 7, 1931, the Corporation Commission of Oklahoma issued an order which divided the Oklahoma City field into the Wilcox, Arbuckle, and Lower Simpson zones for proration purposes. Wells producing from the Wilcox zone were allowed to produce 4 1/2 percent of their potential5/ from November 1, 1931, to January 1, 1932; Arbuckle limestone wells were allowed to produce 250 barrels of oil daily; and Simpson sandstone wells which had a potential of over 2,000 barrels per day or which made 3 percent or more water were allowed to produce 200 barrels of oil per day.

Jan 1, 1937

By John Soule

The Torpedo copper mine in the Organ Mining, District, Dona Ana County, N. Mex., was discovered in 1899, and production of copper from oxidized-ore deposits was begun in 1900. Production continued through 1907, but operations were only intermittent frown 1907 through 1921. The production of copper during these periods amounted to about 3,500,000 pounds. Reserves primary sulfide copper ore were believed to occur below the old workings, and after a detailed examination of accessible workings and a study of drilling records of several private companies by an engineer of the Bureau of Mines, a development program of diamond core drilling was initiated. This investigation was started October 3, 1949; and completed April 30, 1950. Four holes totaling 2,122.3 feet wore diamond-drilled, and 70 samples were analyzed. All drilling was done with a Government-owned hydraulic-feet drill having special rods and core barrels to increase the recovery of core in critical zones. This report describes the location, history, ore deposits, and factual data obtained by the Bureau of Mines from the drilling.

Jan 1, 1951

By C. H. Riggs

This report describes the development, oil recovery, and potentialities of productive formations in the Hall-Gurney field, Russell County, Kans. It is presented as part of a general program to aid and promote increased recovery from petroleum reservoirs. The report is based on studies of well logs, drill cuttings, and oil-and water-production histories of individual wells and leases. The geological interpretations follow closely those in published literature with only slight local modifications. Oil and water analyses, made at a Bureau of Mines research center, were supplemented by many analyses obtained from oil-producing and service companies. The Hall-Gurney field, in south central Russell County, Kans., (fig. 1) was discovered in 1931 but was not developed extensively until 1941. By 1960 the rate of oil production from the field had declined to the extent that many wells were abandoned. In some areas natural productive forces have effected good recovery. However, in other areas inefficient waterflooding, both natural and accidental, has adversely affected recovery potentialities.

Jan 1, 1963

By W. W. Adams

[Sales of explosives - permissible explosives5/ other high explosives, and black blasting powder - in the United States during the calendar year 1937 reached a combined total that slightly exceeded the quantity sold in 1936. A larger output was reported for permissible and other high explosives but a smaller for black powder. Production of the three classes of explosives totaled 404,744,294 pounds, more than 3 percent over 1336. The total quantity produced included 49,579,441 pounds of permissible, 288,924,253 pounds of other high ex- plosives, 36,403,950 pounds of black powder in pellet form, and 23,836,550 pounds of black powder in granular form. Sales of granular black powder declined 26 percent compared with 1936 and of pellet black powder 12 percent; gales of permissible explosives increased nearly 4 percent and of other high explosives 10 percent]

Jan 1, 1938

By John E. Rourke, O&apos

A survey of existing and developing field permeability test methods was conducted in order to identify and specify capable methods to be used in feasibility investigations or performance monitoring for in situ leaching of ore deposits. Geologic settings of leachable deposits are discussed, as well as representative techniques used for the in situ leaching operation. Subsurface investigation techniques including drilling, core recovery, and down-hole inspection methods relevant to field permeability investigations are discussed. Field experience is examined and capable field permeability test methods are identified. Specifications for test borehole preparation, test performance. and methods of analysis are given. The test methods are comparatively rated in a matrix with respect to costs ease of use, and data effectiveness' for a broad range of conditions. Well Pump and Packer test methods receive high ratings. Recommendations are made for needed developments in field permeability test methods and a comprehensive bibliography is given.

Jan 1, 1977

By D. I. Bleiwas

The Bureau of Mines determined demonstrated tin resources and costs associated with tin production in order to evaluate the potential for tin production from 18 market economy countries (MEC's). Data were collected from tin producers, in most cases during on-site visits. The analyses evaluated the relative economic and resource position of 146 mines, deposits, or regions in January 1984 dollars. The demonstrated resource of recoverable tin within the nations studied is approximately 2.8 million metric tons (mt). Of this total, over 73 pct is recoverable from the Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia, which in 1983 accounted for almost 60 pct of the world's tin production. Brazil has joined the Southeast Asian countries as a major low-cost, high-volume supplier of tin and is likely to continue to expand its production. Given the 1984 market structure, over 60 pct of the tin in demonstrated resources was economically recoverable. Historically, the International Tin Council (ITC) has helped maintain relatively stable tin prices through a buffer stock and sales quotas. In late 1985, exhaustion of buffer stock funds led to suspension of tin trading on the world's major tin metal exchanges.

Jan 1, 1986