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The range of environments which control the level of ground support required vary greatly in terms of rock type, rock structure and the mining method used. At the operating mines visited during this review the level of ground support was such that incidence of rock-fall- related accidents were rare. It was also found that methods existed to support most of the conditions encountered. The main problem areas were weak rock, major geological structures, areas of heavy jointing, high development density and areas affected by high mining-induced stresses and blasting. With stope support the level of success was much lower than that achieved in development; the larger spans and more rapid changes in geometry of open stopes compared with cut and fill stoping (where cables were originally used) led to significant problems. Before a useable design method for cable support of stope walls and pillars can be obtained the precise failure mode of the walls and pillars, and the interaction of the support and the rock mass must be investigated.

Jan 1, 1982

Goldfields (Tasmania) Limited operates a small, high-grade underground gold mine on the West Coast of Tasmania, 30 kilometres north of Queenstown. The main orebody, Zone 96, was discovered in 1989, with major development work commencing in 1993. The mine was officially opened in July, 1996. Initial production came from a shallow orebody known as the Sill Zone, some 50 - 150 m below surface, which was accessed by a 1 in 8 decline. Zone 96 lies between 350 m and 550 m below the surface and is accessed by a 402 m deep, 3.2 m diameter internal shaft from the collar level located 100 m below surface. The main ore extraction system in Zone 96 is mechanised cut and fill, using high density paste fill. Run of mine ore and waste are hoisted in a single 5.5 tonne overturning skip, then trucked from the underground collar to the gold plant ROM pad or waste dump, respectively. Ground conditions in the mine vary with orientation and proximity to major faults. The gold is contained in a sequence of strongly altered volcanic rocks adjacent to the Henty Fault. Most of the gold is contained in massive quartz, ranging in width from 0.5 m to 7 m, which has been subjected to substantial faulting. Average mineable grade is about 27 grams gold per tonne. Ore reserves in 1996 proved an initial mine life of approximately 4.5 years at 90 000 ounces gold per annum, with significant potential for additional resources from extensions to Zone 96 and adjacent zones. The lease is located in an environmentally sensitive area and a very high standard of environmental management is an essential part of the operation. This paper describes the relevant aspects of mining at Henty including grade control, ground support, backfill placement and environmental management.

Jan 1, 1998

By M Watson, A V. Engelbrecht, E Murray-Hayden

Whereas mine reconciliation is a well-established month-end process for most modern mining operations, the resource sector has yet to endorse uniform reporting factors against which model accuracy and metal recovery can be formally assessed. Logically, any comprehensive reconciliation framework should facilitate comparison between period reserve, mine and mill and production figures. Historically, Parker’s F Series ratios (Parker, 2012) are often used in some form by mine operators, although they are rarely shared externally, as formal definitions have yet to be accepted. This paper presents a structural extension to the reconciliation process, wherein resource ratios (R Series factors) are used to quantify the long-term impact of the information effect, together with dilution and ore loss. A case study from the El Limón Guajes (ELG) Mine Complex in Mexico is used to demonstrate how an R Factor Series can be implemented to facilitate operation optimisation, over and above conventional F Series reconciliation treatments. This approach is applicable to any mining operation.

Mar 22, 2022

By D Fergusson, J D. St George

Highwall stability is a major consideration in optimising opencast mine geometry. It involves assessing the risk of those slope failures that are large enough to have significant cost, safety and/or operational implications. These risks are then balanced against the value of the resource to arrive at an acceptable slope design. Load-deformation models (commonly referred to as ænumericalÆ models) of slopes provide a powerful tool in this decision-making process since they can be verified well before slope failure occurs. This gives the slope designer increased confidence in reviewing designs during excavation, potentially allowing early revision of pit geometry to either increase or decrease safety margins as appropriate. However, these models are not always adopted as they depend heavily on an appropriate choice of constitutive model and material parameters.   A preliminary load-deformation model of a 170m highwall in Solid Energy North (SEN) OperationsÆ Awaroa 4 opencast coal mine in the Rotowaro Coalfield has been prepared. This uses a strain-dependent constitutive model based on laboratory test results, strength parameters developed by SEN and excavation monitoring data. The laboratory testing has included triaxial compression tests on large-diameter fractured samples to characterise the stress-strain response of the closely-jointed soft rock masses that exist in many parts of the mine. Data from the monitoring of a 25m cut made during excavation of a haul road has been used to refine and verify the constitutive model. The resulting highwall model has predicted highwall crest movements corresponding to the excavation of each bench, for comparison with monitored values. Key model outputs are total horizontal movements of about 0.5m near the highwall crest and shear strains of 0.5-0.7% at the locations of potential bedding-parallel shear planes underlying the highwall. Most of the movement is expected to occur as creep rather than as an immediate response to excavation.

Jan 1, 2006

In this paper a quantitative deterministic risk modelling approach (Quadrim) is introduced. The mathematical framework and equations for quantifying uncertainty within and aggregating across value chain nodes from error propagation techniques is proposed and discussed. A case study and worked examples, based on a hypothetical mine are then presented. This illustrates how uncertainty from the mining and economic value chains can be handled in a typical net cash flow calculation, and how this can be translated to a risk model. It is then illustrated that current valuation techniques do not just result in an information gap for decision makers. Traditional approaches such as discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis and truck and shovel productivity analysis, which do not take into account uncertainty in input values, can result in potential bias in estimates such as net present value (NPV) or equipment hours

Sep 26, 2011

By J C. Waters

Pseudoclastic hydrothermal alteration textures occur within quenched coherent dykes forming part of a subaqueous dome complex (~4 Ma) onPonza Island, Italy. These textures are similar to those observed in considerably older (~500 Ma) subaqueous volcanic rocks at a number of localities throughout the Mount Read Volcanics in Tasmania and elsewhere in ancient volcanic sequences of this type in Australia. This is significant because the processes of formation, hydrothermal alteration and secondary mineralisation of ancient volcanic sequences may be better understood if we can make comparisons with modern analogues. Observations at Ponza imply that these pseudoclastic alteration features form synvolcanically or immediately after dyke emplacement and lava extrusion. This is compatible with scenarios presented for their formation in ancient sequences in the Mount Read Volcanics, Tasmania.

Jan 1, 1995

Study of Bauxite Separation by Using Flotation Column

Sep 13, 2010

By J Taylor, M Smith, A Tunnadine, D Nikolakopoulos

As Olympic Dam rapidly expands into the Southern Mine Area (SMA) the Mine Geology team has concurrently ramped up underground diamond drilling to sustain rates of above 175 km/a. With >10 underground rigs double-shifting, traditional paper sections used for the management of drill programs were no longer optimal due to scale of operations. An opportunity was identified to modernise monitoring of all underground diamond drill programs, through the integration of logged copper sulfide estimates with Olympic Dam’s first-fully integrated deposit-scale geological model in Leapfrog Geo. This paper describes the transition within the Mine Geology team from reliance on 2D paper sections, towards near-real time 3D geological modelling for optimising end-of-hole decisions in the field. This transition was enabled by innovative database solutions informing locally constrained implicit models, limited by a distance buffer around active underground fan drilling. Due to the high volume of historic drilling, there were significant computational challenges with the implementation of daily production style implicit models at Olympic Dam and initial testing of regular updates to implicit gradeshells and sulfide domains required in excess of 12 hrs to run. The enabling solution was to optimise the interfaces between the AcQuire database, Deswik MDM and Leapfrog Geo to create a dynamic, streamlined workflow that was easily completed by Mine Geologists in accordance with daily production duties. Geologists are now building rapid implicit models for a range of variables from an integrated data set of logged sulfide estimates and existing assays, spatially constrained by 150 m buffers around active drilling using a unique drill fan identifier flagged during the planning phase. Once the live-implicit models are updated, they are exported for visualisation on field tablets to be used during logging and core checks at the start and end of every shift. To manage the risk of ‘going digital’ interpretation remains at the forefront of the drill section close-out process, with Mine Geologists critically reviewing the finished sections on a standardised template with new learnings wireframed and communicated to stakeholders. The Live Field Model has enabled a step-change in the geological effectiveness of diamond drilling, reducing over – and under-drilling ore-waste at Olympic Dam continuing to push drilling effectiveness towards 20 per cent of intercepts >2 per cent Cu. In addition, upside or risk identified during the proactive management of drilling execution can be rapidly capitalised or mitigated.

Mar 22, 2022

By S Padekar, C Tapia, D Likhachev, S Harlikar, D Sapkale

In the quest to access valuable critical minerals, humankind is expanding the frontier into extreme environments like space and deep-sea mining. These ambitious enterprises involve considerable costs and lengthy development cycles to ensure the robustness of mining systems in the face of the harshest conditions and unforeseen challenges. Unfortunately, obtaining information from these unexplored territories is complicated. Data is often scarce, incomplete or impossible to obtain until equipment is deployed, leaving engineers facing many uncertainties throughout the design, testing, production and preparation of such missions. Despite these challenges, these extreme environments operate under consistent physical and chemical principles that can be faithfully digitally replicated. However, unexplored areas and dynamic systems like weather and geology continue to carry uncertainties. While eliminating uncertainties remains elusive, Digital Twins offers a means of robust risk management tool. These virtual replicas can excel in simulating extreme conditions and unexpected events, helping optimise and validate mining system designs tailored for such hostile environments. This study takes inspiration from the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) Curiosity Rover’s wheel damage rate to develop a Multiphysics Modelling and Virtual Motion Simulation (MMVMS) system. Using advanced Generative Design, this MMVMS system refines the MSL’s design, simulates component and system performance, and assesses the risk of premature damage while operating on Mars. Additionally, MMVMS integrates cutting-edge CAD design technologies from aerospace and manufacturing to realistically recreate the Martian environment and a detailed representation of MSL, allowing mobility verification and validation simulation to test different components in terms of materials, design, weight, power and, therefore, cost. The research highlights the precision of MMVMS in replicating extreme conditions, simulating and evaluating internal and external variables influencing the entire system (Rover) in real-time, and predicting movements, failures, and premature damage. This sophisticated Digital Twin technology, showcased in this research, holds promise not only for space missions but also to be adapted for terrestrial and deep-sea mining operations.

Sep 1, 2024

By J Zhou, L Crompton, K P. Galvin, J L. Sutherland, C P. Lowes, C Bezuidenhout, J Bijzet

Platinum Group Metal (PGM) bearing ores from the Upper Group 2 (UG2) reef often contain significant concentrations of chromite which can potentially be upgraded to produce a saleable product. A common approach is to implement gravity separation on the PGM flotation circuit tailings. However, where the particle size range of interest is broad and the lower size limit ultra-fine, the challenge is how to maximise the recovery at a saleable product grade without compromising throughput. This study was concerned with the performance of a REFLUX™ Classifier for beneficiation of a PGM bearing chromite ore and the benefits of size classification. The sample had a nominal top size of 0.5 mm and was processed over the complete size range and in two discrete size classes following classification at 106 µm. The primary goal was to produce a concentrate exceeding 40 wt. per cent Cr2O3, ideally approaching 42 wt. per cent Cr2O3, with minimal PGM losses above 106 µm. A major challenge was to process at the required solids throughput in a single stage with the feed pulp density constrained to a nominal upper limit of 30 wt. per cent solids. It was found that varying the controller density set point of the REFLUX™ Classifier produced strong control of the product grade. Products as high as 41.1 wt. per cent Cr2O3 were produced at 78.6 per cent recovery for the +106 µm material, while in the −106 µm portion the product grade was as high as 41.4 wt. per cent Cr2O3 at 83.2 per cent recovery. Processing the feed in discrete size classes enabled the volumetric feed and fluidisation rates to be optimised for a given application; hence, superior performance was achieved at the finer sizes. This work has demonstrated the value in considering feed preparation as well as technology selection in developing a robust process solution.

Aug 24, 2022

By N Jeannee, L Rattmann, M W. N Buxton, A deJong, K Nienhaus, A Soares, P Graham, A Korre, J Benndorf, D Buttgereit

The flow of information, and consequently the decision-making along the chain of mining from exploration to beneficiation, typically occurs in a discontinuous fashion over long timespans. In addition, due to the uncertain nature of the knowledge about deposits and the inherent spatial distribution of material characteristics, actual production performance often deviates from expectations. Reconciliation exercises to adjust mineral resource and reserve models and planning assumptions are performed with timely lags of weeks, months or even years.The key concept of real-time mining promotes a change in paradigm from discontinuous intermittent process monitoring to a continuous process and quality management system in the resource extraction process. The framework includes a real-time feedback control loop that rapidly links online data acquired during extraction at the mining face, material handling and processing with a sequentially updatable resource model. This will allow near real-time optimisation of decisions related to long-term planning, short-term sequencing and production control.The proposed framework integrates the following building blocks in a holistic manner: automated sensor-based material characterisationonline machine performance measurementsunderground navigation and positioningunderground mining system simulation and optimisation of planning decisionsupdating techniques for resource/reserve models.This paper introduces the real-time mining concept and the building blocks and provides a review of the state-of-the-art. Technological readiness of necessary building blocks is assessed, and critical gaps for further technology development are identified. The value added is illustrated by means of a case study.CITATION:Benndorf, J, Buxton, M W N, Nienhaus, K, Rattmann, L, Korre, A, Soares, A, deJong, A, Jeannee, N, Graham, P, Buttgereit, D, Gehlen, S, Eijkelkamp, F, Mischo, H, Sandtke, M and Wilsnack, T, 2015. Real-time mining – moving towards continuous process management in mineral resource extraction, in Proceedings Third International Future Mining Conference, pp 37–46 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Nov 4, 2015

By L Teixeira, C J. Greet, P Karageorgos

Pyrite is ubiquitous within copper ores, and presents significant challenges to most operations in terms of its impact on copper sulfide concentrate grade and recovery.Samples of ore containing from 3 to 47 percent pyrite, with nominally the same chalcopyrite feed grade, were collected from a copper mine in eastern Australia for testing. The ores were ground under standard conditions using forged steel grinding media in the Magotteaux Mill® to determine the impact of increasing pyrite feed grade on the pulp chemistry of the system and subsequent rougher flotation response. Attempts were made to correlate the pulp chemical parameters (oxygen demand and EDTA extractable metal ions) with flotation behaviour to determine if one (or more) could be used as a metric to infer metallurgical behaviour.The observations made were then tested under different grinding environments (obtained using more electrochemically inert high chromium) grinding media to determine if they hold true.CITATION:Greet, C J, Karageorgos, P and Teixeira, L, 2015. The influence of pyrite on the pulp chemistry and copper flotation response of a chalcopyrite ore, in Proceedings MetPlant 2015, pp 175–187 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Sep 7, 2015

By B Kilgariff

Flotation has been in use at Broken Hill for nearly 100 years, and the process has gone through many different optimisation studies over that time. This paper reviews the current flotation practice at the Perilya Broken Hill Mine, and details one of the recent optimisation studies conducted using mathematical modelling and simulation tools. The optimisation study consisted of surveys of the lead and zinc circuits, mapping of the floatability components of the ore and developing models of the lead and zinc circuits. The models were then used to conduct simulations to simplify the circuit. The study allowed plant personnel to identify optimum operating conditions for their current flotation cells, as well as possible improvements in circuit configuration and cell capacity.

Jan 1, 2005

By M Russ, J Gediga

This paper shows an economic feasible approach to implement greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction measures into the mining and metallurgy industry (MMI). The goal to improve energy consumption is directly linked to the reduction of GHG emissions in the MMI. A baseline scenario of the considered reference system and of the respective reference year has to be designed and analysed. In a second step an analysis of the same operation using the best available technology (BAT) processes is carried out to generate a basis for a benchmark system. The identified gaps will be reported and the potential GHG emission reductions will be put into relation to the investment, running cost and generated carbon credits of the new process technologies to be implemented. This economic feasibility calculation is necessary to realise a cost efficient GHG reduction roadmap decision-making for implementing new technology into the companyÆs business operations. The GHG reduction roadmap is developed using the marginal abatement curve approach.

Jan 1, 2009

By A Batnasan

The main techniques for removing phosphorus as an impurity element in iron ores are physical separation (eg magnetic separation, flotation) and chemical separation (acid leaching, alkaline leaching and bioleaching) processes. When phosphorus occurs in iron ores as phosphate minerals (eg apatite), physical separation techniques are available to remove the gangue minerals from iron ores. On the other hand, chemical separation techniques are suitable for reducing phosphorus levels when phosphorus is associated with iron oxides and hydroxide minerals (eg hematite and goethite) in iron ores. In this study, the dephosphorisation behaviour of high‐phosphorus iron ore was investigated using a combined alkaline roasting and water washing route. Roasting experiments were conducted in a laboratory electric muffle furnace using various concentrations of sodium hydroxide (0–50 g/kg-ore) at different temperatures (100–800°C), varying prolonged roasting times (0–2 h), and different particle size fractions (-45 – -250 μm) of iron ore. Subsequent water washing experiments were employed at various pulp densities (30–1000 g/L) and different times (30 s – 60 min) at ambient temperature. Hematite and goethite were the main minerals in the high-phosphorus iron ore identified using X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The iron ore assaying 63.40 mass % Fe (total), 0.240 mass % P, 4.53 mass % SiO2, and 4.87 mass % Al2O3 were determined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis. The results showed that the dephosphorisation rate of the iron ore was reached 40 per cent under roasting with 50 g/kg-ore NaOH at 300°C for 2 hours followed by water washing for 30 s with a pulp density of 300 g/L, reducing phosphorus level from 0.240 mass % to 0.142 mass %. At the same time, the iron grade was reduced from 63.4 per cent to 59.5 per cent, caused by an iron loss. Results suggest that the phase transformation of goethite induces the dephosphorisation of high-phosphorus iron ore under alkaline roasting conditions

Aug 22, 2022

By B Murphy

Traditionally comminution optimisation has been focused on energy minimisation, whereas flotation optimisation has been focused on recovery improvement. One of the largest, if not the largest, operating cost over the life of a flotation circuit is electrical energy. With increasing pressure on operators to lower production costs and the cost of energy increasing, reducing the energy consumption of the flotation circuit can be beneficial to site economics. This paper reviews the use of energy by mechanically agitated flotation machines and discusses the measurement and benchmarking of energy consumption in modern flotation concentrators. Opportunities for improving flotation energy efficiency are also identified.CITATION:Murphy, B, 2013. Flotation energy consumption and opportunities for improvement, in Proceedings MetPlant 2013 , pp 399-412 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 15, 2013

Observed mineral assemblages in the Mt. Lyell copper deposit can be correlated with phase equilibrium investigations in the systems Cu-Fe-S and Fe-Zn-S. The trend of crystallization (or paragenetic sequence) of the ores is reflected in a progressive increase in the Cu: Fe and metal: sulphur ratios of the assemblages. This trend agrees with the regional zoning of the district. Tentative relationships between the paragenetic sequence, sulphur vapour pressure, and temperature are presented graphically. The absence of a suitable geological thermometer prevents precise elucidation of the range of temperatures and pressures which existed during crystallization.INTRODUCTIONRecent phase equilibrium investigations of metal-sulphur systems at the Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D.C. provide valuable information on the stability relations of a number of important sulphide minerals. This data, when applied to natural ore deposits, may be expected to clarify two special problems which confront the ore petrologist seeking to interpret observed data in terms of a particular physical and chemical environment of ore deposition. These two problems are the sequence of formation of sulphide minerals (commonly designated the paragenetic sequence) and an elucidation of the range of temperatures and pressures which existed during crystallization. The object of this paper is to make such an interpretation of the copper mineralization of the Mt. Lyell district, Queenstown, Tasmania.The following abbreviations are used in this paper:py = pyrite, cp = chalcopyrite, en = cubanite, bn = bornite,cc = chalcocite, cv = covellite, dg = digenite, id = idaite,po = pyrrhotite, v = sulphur vapour.GEOLOGICAL SETTING AND MINERALIZATIONThe general geology of the Mt. Lyell district is well known through the recent work of Wade and Solomon (1958). The host rocks are a series of quartz-chlorite-seri-...

Jan 1, 1963

The richer, shallower sapphire deposits of the New England region of New South Wales which have been traditionally mined by the small miner are almost worked out. Larger mining and exploration companies are replacing the small miner and exploring for the primary source of sapphire or lower grade alluvial deposits.   Although in recent years considerable exploration effort has been directed at locating the primary source, commercial exploitation of sapphire is still restricted to the working of alluvial deposits.   If the Australian industry is to compete against Asian and African producers it must use cost effective exploration, mining) processing and marketing methods.

Jan 1, 1990

By D Blair, T Scutts, L Fergusson

This paper presents a waste rock treatment and rehabilitation program conducted at a metaliferous mine site in northern New South Wales from 2000–2013. It updates findings from 2005 for Program #1 (which examined acidity, leachable metals and tree growth in a control and three treated areas of waste rock) and includes new results for Program #2 (which examined acidity, plant uptake of metals and trace elements and tree growth in a control and four treated areas compared to undisturbed background levels) and Program?#3 (which examined the treatment and revegetation of submerged mine tailings and an exposed tailings beach).Program #1 showed low soil pH in the control area remained unchanged from years 1–14, and soil pH in the limed and capped areas was initially increased but fell back to starting levels within 12 months and remained low for 14 years. In contrast, soil pH in the Terra B area resulted in soil high pH immediately after treatment and increased in years six and 14 without further treatment. Tree height and density in 2005 and again in 2013 indicated acidity in the control, limed and capped areas suppressed tree height and density; however, in the Terra B area, revegetation in 2013 was comparable to undisturbed forest. Outcomes in the control, biosolids and three Terra B areas in Program #2 were similar to those observed in Program #1.Program #3 showed the submerged and exposed tailings initially had low pH and high concentrations of total and leachable metals before treatment, but these became non-leachable after treatment with Terra B. Revegetation was achieved on the tailings beach, with almost uniform colonisation of bulrush and common reed, along with bottlebrush and golden wattle; a variety of reptiles have also been observed on the revegetated tailings beach, along with migrating ducks, spoonbills and grebes.CITATION:Fergusson, L, Blair, D and Scutts, T, ?2014. Treatment and rehabilitation of acidic waste rock and tailings – a 14-year case study, in Proceedings Life-of-Mine 2014 , pp 247–260 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

Jul 16, 2014

By P M. Cepuritis

In hard rock mining, large-scale bulk mining methods such as block or panel caving (BC/PC) and sublevel caving (SLC) typically generate significant surface deformations such as subsidence. Surface deformations need to be considered in the project evaluation and planning stages of cave mines, for example, planning and location of critical underground mine planning infrastructure such as portals, haulage and vent shafts, access roads, or potential damage to existing infrastructure, changes to surface water management, waste dump, stockpile and tailings dam stability, and environmental impacts. Assessing the impact and risks associated with subsidence is a key component in robust mine planning and operations management.

Nov 29, 2022