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By R. Dekkers

Non-metallic inclusions in liquid steel are mainly formed during killing. As far as these particles are not captured by the slag, they are found in the cast steel where they can deteriorate the mechanical properties. Inclusions may also disrupt the continuous casting process, affecting thus directly the quality of the steel and the production capacity. Steel pin samples from the Sidmar plant (Belgium) were taken in different steps of several ladle treatments and in the tundish. Also slab samples were studied. All samples concern the same type of low alloyed aluminium killed steel. The non-metallic inclusions were isolated from the steel matrix and investigated with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive spectrometry. The evolution of the non-metallic inclusions is described by their number, size, shape and elemental composition. The main non-metallic inclusions present are aluminium oxides and spinel type compounds.

Jan 1, 1999

By JiaPeng Xu, Brian Lo, Uday B. Pal, Yihong Jiang, Soumendra N. Basu

"The Solid-Oxide Oxygen-Ion-Conducting Membrane (SOM) electrolysis process has been successfully tested on a laboratory scale, producing silicon directly from silica in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly way. A yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) tube, closed at one end was employed to separate the molten salt containing dissolved silica from a liquid metal anode placed inside the YSZ tube. When the applied electric potential between the liquid tin cathode in the molten salt and the anode exceeds the dissociation potential of silica, oxygen ions are pumped out of the molten salt through the YSZ membrane and oxidized at the anode while the silicon cations in the flux are reduced to silicon at the liquid tin cathode. The presence of high-purity silicon crystals on the surface of liquid tin cathode was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS). Silicon crystals were extracted from tin cathode by chemical etching.IntroductionPhotovoltaics (PV) generate electrical power by using solar cells, and dramatically reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG). Through 2006 to 2011, it grew the fastest of all renewable technologies with operating capacity increasing an average of 58% annually [l]. However, the cost of manufacturing solar-grade silicon (SoG-Si) for high-efficiency solar energy production represents a major barrier to achieving the industrial goal for solar power of $1/Wp (watt at peak exposure) which would enable widespread grid parity. The current contract price of silicon to PV manufacturers is $50-$60/kg, with the spot market in 2007-2008 showing prices as high as $300/kg [2]. This makes the development of low cost and environmentally friendly manufacturing of high purity silicon very important."

Jan 1, 2013

By Min Chen, Nan Wang, Zhen Tian, Yingying Shen

"The enrichment behavior of phosphorus in CaO-SiO2-FeOx-P2O5 slag was studied by making an investigation on the distribution of phosphorous content in slag and 2CaO·SiO2 phase. The research results showed that the existing 2CaO·SiO2 solid particles in slag were the sites for the phosphorous enrichment. The enrichment process of phosphorus in CaO-SiO2-FeOx-P2O5 slag can be recognized as: mass transfer of phosphorus from bulk slag toward the surface of 2CaO·SiO2 particle, superficial dissolution reaction of phosphorus to 2CaO·SiO2 and diffusion of phosphorus through the product layer of 2CaO·SiO2-3CaO·P2O5 solid solution to the inner of 2CaO·SiO2 particle. Compared to the 2CaO·SiO2 particles with larger size (500µm to 1000µm), the completion time of enrichment was shorter for the particles with smaller size (less than 50µm).IntroductionDuring ironmaking and steelmaking, significant amounts of slag are produced. Contrast to the high utilization of ironmaking slag, the treatment of steelmaking slag is more difficult and challengeable, and therefore, an alternative approach is to recycle the steelmaking slag inside the ironmaking and steelmaking process itself. The main limitation to the reuse of steelmaking slag inside the process is that the refining process may be aggravated caused by the phosphorous accumulation if it is used in the blast furnace burden [1]. At the same time, the phosphorous content of steelmaking slag (approximately 1%~5% P2O5) is too low for it to be used as raw material for fertilizer [2, 3]. Moreover, owing to the diminishing supply of global iron ores with low phosphorous content, the control of phosphorus in iron and steelmaking processes has become an increasing problem, and as a result, more amounts of high phosphorus containing steelmaking slag are produced. Therefore, a valuable approach is quite appreciated in which the steelmaking slag is recycled within the ironmaking and steelmaking process and at the same time, the high phosphorus-containing phases in the steelmaking slag, suitable for use as fertilizer can be separated and recycled effectively [4]."

Jan 1, 2011

By John P. Hager

One possible approach for the recovery of mercury from acid plant blow-down sludge in smelters is the use of a vacuum retort reactor for the vaporization of the mercury with subsequent collection of metallic mercury in an attached condenser. An experimental study was undertaken to investigate the vaporization of mercury when present as a compound in the Hg-S-O and Hg-Se systems. A transpiration reactor was modified to operate under reduced pressure and with a continuous flow of inert sweep gas. A water-cooled cold finger was inserted into the exit end of the reactor to provide for the rapid quenching of the exit gases and the collection of the mercury. Rates of vaporization were measured at several temperatures for each compound and were generally found to be constant at a given temperature and reactor pressure. The results were used to determine the minimum operating temperature for 100% vaporization of the compound in 60 minutes. For Hg2SO4, HgSO4, and HgSO/2HgO the required temperatures. for a reactor pressure of 50 Torr. were determined to be 634°, 622°. and 603°C. respectively. For HgO, HgSe, and HgS the required temperatures were 557°. 451°. And 382°C. respectively. For HgS the rate of vaporization was also measured at a reactor pressure of 1 00 Torr. The rate of vaporization was found to be slower resulting in an increased vaporization temperature of 423°C. It was also determined that the mercury vapor present in the exit gas stream can back-react with the other gas species to a significant extent and can result in very little condensed metallic mercury. For the vaporization of both HgS and HgSe. the mercury vapor was found to have back-reacted to the extent that virtually none of the vaporized mercury was collected in metallic form. For the vaporization of Hg2S04? HgS04, and HgSO4*2HgO the amount of metallic mercury recovered varied from approximately 50% for HgS04*2HgO to approximately 10% for Hg2S04 and HgS04. Only for HgO was the recovered mercury in primarily elemental form. The application of the results to the operation of a vacuum retort and condenser system is discussed.

Jan 1, 2001

By Fatbardha Osmani, Skender Osmani

"A system analysis of the resource and environment management (water, energy etc) starts from its definition. Unfortunately, there is not a unique semantics of the mentioned concept. On these circumstances, in this paper the following issues are presented: 1.A short view on the existing concepts of management. 2.A new definition on the concept of management. It is considered as a complex and rational activity on human and natural resources ,environment etc, which starts from a analysis of infrastructure ,technology , etc, mission , alternatives , project etc. and ends to an optimal output. Basing on this definition, the management has two principal components: strategy and policy. The strategy is referred as a blue print program (the same definition as in Game Theory), which contains all the contingency alternatives. , while the policy is referred as a strategy applied into practice. The strategy is the first , while the policy is the second one. The best alternative of a policy is the project, Each strategy has one and only one project. The mentioned definition erases the differences between concept of policy and politics. Each strategy has its alternatives ,the next has its sub strategy and so on, i.e. whatever are going to be the strategy, there are a hierarchy composed by sub strategies up to the simplest strategies applied by a single individual (human beings or robots). The strategy objectives are necessary and sufficient conditions for its realization i.e . the strategy is an optimal activity, in which all resources are integrated and processed . Several strategies could be joined into one( for example the surface water strategies of the Balkan countries) . In this view, the strategy could be globalized into optimal way basing on different criteria’s as social, economic, environmental, their risks and effectiveness etc. etc An example from the water management illustrates the mentioned concepts."

Jan 1, 2008

By C. Lupi

Zinc impure solutions as spent electrolytes, leach liquors coming from aqueous treatment of both minerals and solid waste, need to be purified before undergoing the treatment to obtain the final product. Solvent extraction is one of the most selective operations particularly when many metallic ions are present in solution. Zinc pure solutions are frequently obtained using DZEHPA as extractant. In this work an investigation on zinc extraction effectiveness of naftenic acid was carried out. After determining the best diluent and the optimal extractant concentration, the partition coefficient was determined as a function of temperature, equilibrium pH and zinc concentration. Finally same batch tests to determine the equilibrium curves at room temperature on exhausted electrolyte coming from zinc cell were carried out by using naftenic acid, D2EHPA and TBP. The pH giving, for each extractant, the best extraction yield was selected in order to compare the equilibrium curves. Experimental results show that all the examined extractants are very effective in zinc extraction if the process conditions are appropriately selected. In order to avoid an impure solution pre- treatment and to obtain the maximum ertraction yield the appropriate solvent can be chosen.

Jan 1, 1998

By Yoshiyuki Matsui

As one of the factors of frequent troubles on iron-making blast in recent years, increased size of the blast furnace and high-productivity operation are pointed out. Consequently, great importance is attached to deadman shape and solid flow at the lower part of furnace. In the present study, firstly, the blast furnace raceway formation under the intensive coal injection by measurement of micro wave reflection gunned through a tuyere is discussed. As the flow rate of coke as the momentum of coke into raceway decreases by combustion of coal injected into tuyeres, the depth of raceway defined as the maximum position of micro wave reflection is easy to contract. It is expected that this new technology could detect the raceway collapse phenomena in short time and that the stability of raceway in coal injection is different from that in all coke operation. Secondly, the reduced stockline surface profile was measured by the reflection intensity of microwave struck from the furnace top after blow-off with stockline reduced, and investigation was made on the countermeasures for changes in the raceway depth and furnace body profile during operation. As a result, it has been clarified that flow-down of coke into the lower part of blast furnace and inflow into the raceway are greatly subject to the existence of deadman which is the packed structure of the lower part of furnace, and further, they are closely related to dynamic behavior of the raceway, and affect changes of the furnace body profile.

Jan 1, 2006

By Alain Jardy, Valerio De Felice, Jean-Pierre Bellot, Ismael Lis Alves Daoud, Stephane Hans

"Gas-stirring ladle treatment of liquid metal has been pointed out for a long time as the processing stage mainly responsible for the inclusion population of specialty steels. A steel ladle is a complex three-phase reactor, where strongly dispersed inclusions are transported by the turbulent liquid metal / bubbles flow. We have coupled a population balance model with CFD in order to simulate the mechanisms of transport, aggregation, flotation and surface entrapment of inclusions. The simulation results, when applied to an industrial gas-stirring ladle operation, show the efficiency of this modelling approach and allow us to compare the respective roles of these mechanisms on the inclusion removal rate.IntroductionThe reduction of the weight of high performance materials together with the improvement of mechanical properties and the increase of the recycling of used metal are new challenges which emphasize the importance of metal cleanliness. Ladle treatment of specialty steels has long been described as the secondary metallurgical process mainly responsible for the non-metallic inclusion derived from the deoxidation process. The treatment is accomplished by blowing argon through one or more porous plugs for the purposes of desulphurization, minor composition adjustments, and inclusion removal. Gas injection is applied on routine basis to achieve both the stirring of the liquid bath (thermal and chemical homogenization) and the entrapment of the inclusions by the bubbles (flotation). Furthermore, the turbulence produced in bubble swarms enhances the probability of inclusion collisions and makes aggregation the first mechanism for particle removal. The physical processes involved in gas stirred ladles are numerous and complex owing to the three dimensional and multiphase (metal-gas and inclusions) nature of the reactor. Despite these difficulties, the population balance equations can be implemented in CFD code11'21 and combined CFD-PBM (computational fluid dynamics - population balance method) models are investigated for steel ladle processes13'41 and produce very promising results in terms of inclusion removal efficiency."

Jan 1, 2012

By A. J. Schindler, F-P Sawyer, T. Logan, M. L. Shutey-McCann, R. M. Perry

"Test work on biooxidation pretreatment of low-grade refractory gold ores has been ongoing at Newmont Gold Company since 1988, including laboratory testing and pilot biooxidation heaps (360 to 23,000 tonne). Metallurgical results of the biooxidation process utilizing Thiobacillus ferrooxidans (T. ferrooxiddans) have culminated in the design, construction, and operation of a biooxidation demonstration facility. The facility has processed 708,000 tonnes of refractory ore, using a batched process with separate pads for biooxidation and ammonium thiosulfate gold extraction. Siliceous sulfidic refractory (SSR) and carbonaceous sulfidic refractory (CSR) ores are treated separately during biooxidation pretreatment unit operation. Following biooxidation, the ores are neutralization with lime and placed on oxide leach pads or stacked on the ammonium thiosulfate leach pad. Gold is leached with either cyanide for SSR ores or ammonium thiosulfate for preg-robbing CSR ores.This paper will only address the biooxidation pretreatment process of the SSR and CSR ores.AcknowledgmentsThe authors appreciate the cooperation and approval of Newmont Gold Company Carlin Operations management for its support and permission to publish this paper. The paper draws on efforts and assistance of the following people and several others which are to many to list who participated over the past five years in bringing this project to its fruition: Dr. James A. Brierley, Chief Microbiologist, Newmont Metallurgical Services; Dr. Rong-Yu Wan, Metallurgical Manager, Newmont Metallurgical Services."

Jan 1, 1997

By Alexandre Bonan

This paper reports the results of a kinetic study on the oxidation of free cyanide and Cu-cyanide complex ions with HO,. The variables and respective ranges studied were the following: [CN] total =10 - 500 mg/l; pH=10-11; (H2O2/CN) mole ratio = 1- 3; (Cu/CN) mole ratio = 0.10 - 0.25. The results were interpreted by a semi-empirical model that incorporates the useful oxidation reactions and the parallel alkaline decomposition of H2O2

Jan 1, 1994

By Patricio Barrios

This paper discusses the revamp and expansion of Atlantic Copper's (formerly Rio Tinto Metal) copper smelter located at Huelva, Spain. The plant was expanded from 150,000 to 270,000 tpy new copper in anodes, and from 133,000 to 215,000 tpy cathodes. Lurgi successfully executed this contract on a lump-sum, turnkey basis in just 19 months. The Lurgi on-site task force performed this work in close cooperation with Atlantic Copper's personnel, with a minimum of disruption in the plant's ongoing operation. The contractual performance parameters were achieved to the client's satisfaction shortly after the mechanical completion of the respective plant sections.

Jan 1, 1998

By Y. Prévost

The Noranda Continuous Converting Process was commissioned in November 1997 at the Home smelter in Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec, Canada. It has completed over 18 months of successful operation. Excellent team work and technical expertise contributed to achieve targeted production levels and environmental goals after only a few months of operation. The operating results have demonstrated the flexibility of the process in producing blister copper from a variety of copper feed materials including a combination of molten and solid copper matte, reverts and fluxes. This paper describes the startup activities and process optimization tasks performed during the first year of operation of the new Noranda Converter.

Jan 1, 1999

By Nozomu Hasegawa

The phase diagrams and microstructures of the slags in the Mitsubishi Continuous Copper Smelting and Converting Process were studied for the prevention of the magnetite troubles such as accretion build-up on furnace hearths and launders, blockages at the melt outlet, slag viscosity increases and so on. According to the results of those studies, the silica and lime contents in the silicate slag at the smelting furnace, and the lime content in the lime-ferrite slag at the converting furnace were changed, resulting in lower and more consistent copper levels in the discard slag, with much less need for operators to clean melt outlets and launders. However, these changes may decrease the desirable amount of accretion-coating inside the furnaces and thereby reduce furnace campaign lives. Therefore, a method of estimating the magnetite level in the melts was developed, and slag compositions and temperatures have been controlled within the appropriate ranges to prolong furnace lives and also prevent magnetite troubles.

Jan 1, 2003

By Hongfa Hu, Stavros A. Argyropoulos

"This paper describes a mathematical model which simulates numerically reaction driven fluid flow phenomena. The driving force of this reaction is an exothermic heat of mixing. In addition, the model predicts the heat and mass transfer phenomena where both heat source and heat sink co-exist in close proximity. The heat source is generated by an exothermic reaction. The heat sink is formed by a moving boundary such as the melting of a solid. This type of phenomena occur quite often in various metal processing operations in which exothermic additions are immersed in liquid metals. The model is based on the SIMPLER algorithm and uses an enthalpy method to predict the fluid flow, temperature, and concentration fields. The results indicate that the exothermic mixing reaction was responsible for an abrupt rise in temperature around the moving boundary. The intensity of this reaction was also found to be responsible for the enhanced convection of fluid and the acceleration of the moving boundary. The modelling results were also verified by experimental work which included velocity and temperature measurements in a low temperature physical model. IntroductionAlloying additions are used extensively in the treatment of liquid metals during metallurgical processes. The alloying additions introduced into liquid metals can be classified into various classes, each of which follows its own route[l]. As a major group, the exothermic additions follow two different steps during their assimilation into liquid metals. In the first step, upon immersion, a metal shell solidifies around such additions, and then melts back. At this point, the second step commences. During this second step, due to the mixing of the addition with a liquid metal, an exothermic reaction occurs, which liberates large amounts of heat, resulting in an enhanced convection in the liquid metal surrounding the addition."

Jan 1, 1994

By Donna Post Guillen

"Cyclopentane, a flammable hydrocarbon, is being considered as a working fluid for waste heat recovery applications using Organic Rankine Cycles with Direct Evaporators. A postulated failure mode consisting of a pinhole leak in a heat exchanger tube raises safety concerns due to autoignition of the working fluid. Experiments were conducted to determine the ignition delay time (IDT) of cyclopentane using an Ignition Quality Test™ (IQT™) device. Two sets of experiments were conducted per ASTM D6890 (with exception to charge pressure and temperature) to determine ignition delay of the fuel at atmospheric pressure for standard air (-20.95% oxygen) and vitiated air (13.3% oxygen) at a temperature of 803 K. Operation of the IQT device at a much lower pressure (1 bar) than normal operation (21.4 bar) with a standard injector led to very rich conditions and wetting of the stainless steel chamber walls. Catalytic effects are postulated to produce the small IDTs observed. Experiments were repeated with a modified injector to prevent wall wetting, resulting in average IDTs that are substantially longer.IntroductionCyclopentane is being considered for use as a working fluid in a Direct Evaporator of an Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC). In this configuration, the heat exchanger is placed directly in the flow of the hot exhaust gas, rather than using a secondary heat transfer loop to isolate the flammable working fluid from the heat source. This configuration offers the advantages of approximately 15% lower cost and improved efficiency over a standard ORC. However, placing a heat exchanger operating with a flammable hydrocarbon in the hot exhaust gas stream presents potential safety risks. If a pinhole leak were to occur in the heat exchanger, working fluid could leak into the hot exhaust stream. Gas turbine exhaust is provided to the Direct Evaporator at a temperature of approximately 803 K, whereas the autoignition temperature of cyclopentane is 634 K (Gallant and Yaws, 1993). Autoignition of the working fluid has been identified as the key risk for this type of system.Autoignition occurs when sufficient self-heating by chemical reactions takes place to accelerate reaction rates to produce full-scale combustion. This is in contrast to forced ignition, in which an external source (e.g., spark) is employed to initiate the combustion process. For combustion to occur, the fuel to oxidizer concentration must be between the lower (lean) and upper (rich) flammable limits. The reaction rate depends on the species concentration of the fuel and oxidant, the local temperature and pressure. Ignition processes are comprised of steps that take a fmite amount of time. This latent period prior to the start of combustion is referred to as ignition delay time (IDT)."

Jan 1, 2012

By Mari Naess, Jan Erik Olsen, Gabriella Tranell

"Fume, also known as dust, is produced during metal refining. Exposure to fume is damaging to the health of plant operators. A mathematical model has been developed to study the different factors governing the fuming mechanism. It is shown that natural convection is the main driving force of the phenomenon, and that the fuming rate is highly sensitive to the area of the exposed metal surface. A new feature introduced in the modeling concept is the ability to include a gas flux of unconsumed process gas flowing up through the metal surface. This reduces the fuming rate, and should normally not be neglected.IntroductionFormation of fume from the ladle in which metal is refined into its final specifications is an environmental issue of importance for the working environment in the production plant. In layman-term fume is often known as dust. It is formed when metal reacts with oxygen. As an example of a fuming process, we will focus on ladle refining of silicon. Note that many of the principles and conclusions will apply to other metal refining processes. For silicon production, silica fume (S1O2) is produced when silicon metal (Si) reacts with oxygen (O2).Silicon is produced in a submerged arc furnace. The metal is tapped from the furnace into a ladle for refining. The refining is conducted by injecting a mixture of air and pure oxygen at the bottom of the ladle. The oxygen reacts with the metal and the impurities, and the amount of impurities is reduced according to product specification. At the ladle surface, metal also reacts with oxygen present in the air surrounding the ladle. This reaction produces silica fume as illustrated in Figure 1."

Jan 1, 2012

By Paul-Dominique Oudenne

This paper reviews the experience gained by CMI NESA over the last thirty years for the treatment of arsenical and antimonical bearing concentrates and other complex metallurgical by-products. The importance of preliminary mineralogical characterization is emphasized as a preliminary step for the success of the roasting. Stage selective roasting appears as an attractive and efficient route for the treatment of complex concentrates. Numerous examples will be given for confirmation of such thermal treatment.

Jan 1, 2006

By H. -Peter Sattler

The laser sorting technique for replacing the handpicking of the non-ferrous metal scrap from auto shredders was first introduced 1990, The process is based on the use of atomic emission spectroscopy induced by lasers to identify the scrap particles and sort them with adequate systems into main fractions of Al-, Zn-and Cu-alloys, stainless steel and lead, In the meantime the handling technique for the scrap, i.e. the singling and sorting technique as well as the analytical detector were further developed for more efficiency and higher reliability, i,e. less maintenance, minor sorting errors etc. These developments were mainly based, on and initiated by operational experiences from the startup phase of a first production plant. Part of the on going research work was the development of an ,aluminium detector which makes it the first time possible to sort mixed aluminium scrap automatically into specific alloy fractions.

Jan 1, 1995

By Wantae Kim, Furnia Saito, Qiwu Zhang

"A novel mechanochemical processing technique for the preparation of zeolites from kaolinite in NaOH solution was investigated. Dry and wet mechanochemical treatments combined by subsequent moderate heat treatment could accelerate the synthetic reaction for zeolites from kaolinite. This stimulating process produced zeolite-A and zeolite-X from activated kaolinite at extremely lower reaction temperature than conventionally applied for zeolites production. Conversion to zeolite-A and zeolite-X was strongly dependent on the activated state of kaolinite. Wet mechanochemical treatment modified the chemical composition of activated solids. Rapid dissolution of AIO species rather than SiO ones in the reactant solution was accelerated by wet milling together with NaOH that promoted the formation of zeolite-X of high specific surface area.IntroductionZeolites are a family of hydrated alumina-silicate minerals contains alkali and alkaline earth metals. They have a framework structure that encloses inter-connected cavities occupied by large metal cations and water molecules. Zeolites are characterized for their ability toward ion exchange and reversible dehydration. Properties of them are exploited through commercial productions of particular structural and chemical features. Zeolites are used as commercial uses for catalysis for FCC (fluidized catalytic cracking) of petroleum refining, drying reagents of gases and liquids, and selective adsorbent for pollution control [1-3]. In such purposes, artificially synthesized zeolites are employed, although natural ones are associated with hydrothermal and hot spring alteration of volcanic materials. Commercially, a hydrothermal process has been used for the preparation of zeolite synthesis. This preparation method gives zeolites of high chemical homogeneity and purity, however, this wet-chemistry-based processing is significantly influenced by reaction temperature, pH, concentration, and composition of starting substances [4]."

Jan 1, 2000

By Shubin Wang

Copper(II) and nickel(II) are often recovered from ammoniacal alkaline solutions by solvent extraction using hydroxyoxime extractants: both copper(II) and nickel(II) are extracted from ammoniacal alkaline solutions and, from the loaded organic phase, nickel(II) is selectively stripped with a dilute acid followed by copper(II) stripping with an acid of higher concentration. Since a small portion of ammonia is co-extracted with copper and nickel, the extracted ammonia should be scrubbed using a dilute acid before metal stripping. In the present study, a mechanistic model has been developed in order to support design and control of this process. The equilibrium distribution ratios of copper(II), nickel(II), and ammonia at 298 K using LIX® 84-I (active component, 2-hydroxy-5-nonylacetophenone oxime) as the extractant are successfully correlated by considering the relevant equilibria. Based on these results, quantitative prediction of equilibrium distribution ratios in the process has been made possible, and suitable conditions for the efficient separation of copper(II) and nickel(II) are discussed.