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By R. T. Jones

The largest known platinum group metal (PGM) deposit in the world is the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, with the Great Dyke in Zimbabwe also being one of the biggest. It is therefore not surprising that the majority (just over 5 million troy ounces or 156 metric tons per annum) of the world's platinum is produced in Southern Africa. Primary smelting of ore concentrates is carried out in that region by five companies, namely Anglo Platinum, Impala Platinum, Lonmin Platinum, Northam Platinum, all of South Africa, and Makwiro Platinum in Zimbabwe. The only other primary smelter of platinum group metals is Stillwater Mining of Montana, USA, although very significant quantities of PGMs are produced as co-products by Norilsk Nickel of Russia. Smaller (but still significant) quantities of PGMs are produced by Falconbridge and Inco of Canada, also as co-products from nickel sulphide smelting. There are many similarities between PGM smelting and nickel sulphide smelting, and the range of technologies in use includes six-in-line rectangular electric furnaces, three-electrode circular AC furnaces, Peirce-Smith converters, and Anglo's ACP (based on Ausmelt technology). PGMs are also recovered from residue materials using DC arc furnace technology.

Jan 1, 2005

"9.1. IntroductionThe application of the electron microprobe for in-situ analysis of platinum-group minerals (PGM), first reported by Borovskii et at. (1959) and Genkin (1959), has resulted in a large and growing number of analyses of unidentified PGM. Figure 9.1 charts the increase in the number of reported unnamed PGM from 3 in 1959 to a total of 140 by 1979. All these minerals, with the exception of UN1968-5 and UN1976-1, were analyzed with the electron microprobe.There has been no recognised or consistent manner for reporting these unidentified PGM. The term ""unnamed"" has been used for PGM that are considered to be new species without a name as well as for PGM which have not been exhaustively compared to named and unnamed PGM in order to determine whether they are unique. Many of the so-called unnamed PGM are only unnamed because of poor microprobe analyses or because larger than usual elemental substitutions (e.g. Bi for As) made it difficult to calculate the true stoichiometry. Some of these unnamed minerals have been unnecessarily reported with non-stoichiometric formulae, as discussed by Cabri (1980). Better analytical data should reduce the number of such proposals.Another unfortunate practice, possibly used to by-pass the scrutiny of the Commission for New Minerals and Mineral Names, I.M.A., is to report a ""new"" mineral by referring to it by a name made up of its constituent elements. This has been deplored on a number of occasions (cf. discussion in Fleischer et at., 1976, p. 179), but some journals continue to publish such material. The Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names has not recognised such ""names"" and these PGM are therefore included in this chapter with other unnamed minerals.A further example of inconsistency in reporting unnamed minerals is the report of a specific ideal stoichiometry with no further details (not even an analysis!); sometimes with a note that this will be reported in greater detail in due course. I have also been guilty of similar optimistic statements and, unfortunately, it is not always possible to follow through. Some authors give data on unnamed minerals in such a discrete manner that their reports are sometimes missed in literature searches."

Jan 1, 1979

By Juliana Parreira

The past decade shows record increases in global demand for minerals and metals with an accompanying significant decline in skilled personnel. Mining companies today are examining new technologies to maximize production, reduce costs, and create safer work conditions to deal with this shortfall. Automation of an open-pit mine haulage system is receiving attention as a beneficial option since it provides more consistent and efficient operation of mining equipment, it removes workers from potential danger, it reduces fuel consumption significantly reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and it can help optimize vehicle repairs and equipment replacement because of more-predictable and better-controlled maintenance. This paper describes a simulation model under development using the EXTENDSIM software package to examine scale-up issues and constraints of autonomous vehicles in comparison to a manual system. The software can predict and manage Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), such as productivity, safety, cost, equipment failures, fuel consumption, and tire wear under different road and load conditions. By breaking-down the various systems of an autonomous haulage truck and simulating the overall haulage system using a Monte Carlo approach, the model becomes a flexible and powerful tool to use within a mining organization. Direct comparison to a manuallyrun system can be done to show the cost and operational benefits of automation. Project managers can use this tool to guide decision-making about possible application of autonomous haulage trucks at a specific mine site.

May 1, 2010

By L. M. Lowe, D. B. Chambers, D. G. Feasby

"The presence of the naturally occurring radioactive elements uranium and thorium in rare earth (RE) resources can present challenges in achieving regulatory and social acceptance. The discovery and awareness of radioactivity in mineral resources radioactivity typically generates strong public intuitive responses that may be project prohibitive; a significant proportion of such resources contain radioactivity.The objectives of this paper are to demystify the presence of uranium and thorium in RE resources and to demonstrate how a RE project can be safely developed, operated and closed from a radiological perspective. Radioactivity in RE resources is principally thorium-based. Thorium is interesting and challenging from a metallurgical perspective – one of those stubborn metals commonly assessed as refractory. Thorium is difficult to mobilise into solution and easily precipitates out. Thorium is a common element in the earth’s crust – about 10 ppm on average, and natural geophysical systems conclusively demonstrate its immobility. Specific mine tailings contain elevated levels of thorium, but the contained thorium is neither a significant ecological nor a personal hazard.Waste management for a hard rock rare earth project includes the management of mineral processtailings, waste rock, and metallurgical residue. Proven strategies are available for tailings and waste rockfor all climate conditions. The management of the metallurgical residues is potentially more challenging.Example robust strategies for addressing these challenges are presented.A potential way to reduce the radioactivity of rare earth metallurgical wastes is to selectively remove uranium and thorium. Uranium oxide is readily marketable, but its concentration as a byproduct typically triggers extensive regulatory processes. Thorium is presently not marketable, but may be so in the not-too-distant future with the development of thorium-based nuclear energy. The pro’s and con’s of uranium and thorium byproduct recovery are summarized."

Jan 1, 2016

By Raju S. Sagi

This paper deals primarily with the different types of drilling methods used by the Iron. Ore Company of Canada for sampling the soft and friable hematite-limonite (secondary) iron ore deposits found in the Scheferville area. The problems associated with drilling, sampling, sample handling and sample preparation. for chemical analysis of these ores are discussed. Systematic evaluation of the various drilling methods led to the selection of an integrated drilling system. This system consists of a rotary dual- tube - reverse-circulation drill, with tricone bit, polymer mud and mechanical sample splitter, The historic al development of this drilling system is described in detail, as are the equipment , sample flow and quality control checks carried out to obtain representative samples. This integrated drilling and sampling system has been used satisfactorily on a routine basis for determining the grade and tonnage of ore for the various deposits for the last five years (1972-76) in the Schefferville area.

Jan 1, 1977

This paper presents a case study where Cenozoic age detritals and an ancient buried landslide have been modelled in the final walls of an iron ore pit. Orebody 25 is located in Western Australia’s Pilbara region and is an operating pit where a redesign of the final wall cutback was required. The existing slope design utilised a simplistic geological model of mixed conglomeratic, calcretic and clay –dominated detritals overlying deformed bedrock sequences. This simplicity resulted in a conservative design that was not reflective of the slopes performance to that point. Further field investigation was carried out with the results assessed in conjunction with historic drilling, mapping and laboratory testing. A detailed geotechnical model was developed including three conglomerate and two clay dominated units and laterstage calcrete overprinting. The clay units were of significant importance to the stability assessment and resulting slope design due to the thickness and poor strength conditions indicated by the laboratory and field testing. However, the drilling investigation shed only limited understanding as to the origin of the clays and thereby how they should be treated as a component in the stability analysis. A comparison of the ratio of various geochemical elements measured by assay was made between the clays and 1) shale bedrock and 2) clays of known detrital origin from other nearby sites. This indicated the clays had a strong affinity with weathered bedrock. This and other textural features resulted in the interpretation that the clay units were relic debris preserved following ancient landslides in bedrock shale. Using laboratory testing data and calibration of results for a landslide origin, stability analyses were run, resulting in a steeper slope design being implemented. Excavation of the final cutback is now in progress with the model confirmed as appropriate.

Jan 1, 2015

By Webber. G. R.

Variation in content of some of the major and minor elements in the Lake Dufault granodiorite near Noranda, Quebec has been studied. The element variation and specific gravity data show a pattern consistent with the concept of a concentrically zoned intrusive on the western side of Lake Dufault with a potassium-rich core and a calcium-rich inner zone. The part of the intrusive on the eastern side of Lake Dufault is of more problematical origin, but the suggestion is made that it has resulted from assimilation of volcanic rock by the intrusive. THE purpose of this investigation was to test the application of x-ray fluorescence analysis to the study of variation in chemical com-position of the Lake Dufault granodiorite. The Lake Dufault granodiorite is an intrusive body approximately six miles long by three miles wide located four miles north of Noranda, Quebec. This intrusive is of particular interest because of its -

Jan 1, 1962

By W. G. Mine

In September, 1953, seismographs were installed in the Crowsnest Pass area of Alberta and British Columbia to study the 'bumps' which were occurring in the coal mines at Fernie and Coleman, and to investigate the possibility that they might be related to minor earthquakes in the area. During the initial phase of the work, three seismographs were operated at widely separated stations, two in the region of coal mines at Coal Creek and Coleman and one at Turner Valley, distant from any mining operations. Some earthquakes were recorded at all three stations and, in addition, many small disturbances were recorded by the seismographs located near the mines, especially -by the instrument at Goal Greek. A closer network of radio-linked seismographs was then in-stalled near Fernie, the records of which definitely established that the small disturbances were occurring in the mine workings, both active and inactive. No relationship was established between bumps and local earth-quakes in the area. This work was initiated as a -co-operative effort with the Fuels Di-vision of the Mines Branch, Department of Mines and Technical Surveys, which has undertaken a study into the phenomena of ground stress relief in underground mine workings.

Jan 1, 1958

By Allan P. Fawley

ONE hundred miles from Vancouver, at an elevation of 4,000 feet, is the Pioneer mine. It is situated on Cadwallader creek, a tributary of Bridge river, and is reached by travelling from Vancouver to Squamish by boat, a distance of thirty-two miles, from there by train to Bridge River (one hundred and seven miles), and finally by automobile across Mission mountain .(7,000 ft. elevation) to the mine (fifty-six miles): a total distance of one hundred and ninety-five miles. Prior to 1924, many Companies had examined the Pioneer, which had been developed by shaft to a depth of 200 feet, but, while values were good, the small size of the ore-shoot discouraged large investors. In July, of that year, opera-tions were re-commenced by the late David Sloan and, on sinking further, the ore-shoot was found to lengthen greatly as well as to ex-tend in depth, while remarkable gold values also were encountered. When, later, the price of gold rose from $20 to $35 per ounce, the mine was in an excellent position to take full advantage of the increase + and not only became an extremely profitable enterprise itself but its success greatly stimulated the search for and development of other 1-gold properties in British Columbia.

Jan 1, 1937

By I. Kirman, B. Waters

World wide applications for nickel use will be summarized and examples of those uses given. Nickel products are critical to many important aspects of modern society. These products are just as important for modern China as they are in other parts of the world. It is argued that future pattern of nickel use in China should be expected to be very similar to that in the rest of the developed world. Total use of nickel in products in China is already very large. In 2004, it was the largest market for stainless steel (nickel containing) in the world. A survey of Chinese stainless steel applications will be presented. Current high nickel prices have revived speculation about substitution, particularly for nickel containing stainless steels. The presentation will discuss some of the complicating factors that need to be taken into account when considering substitution. These factors are as valid in modern China as they are in other developed economies. Recent substitution efforts and the reaction to them will be examined. The Nickel Institute position regarding appropriate application of the various grades of stainless steel will be discussed. Price-motivated substitution in China, and elsewhere, will occur but it is argued that the extent will probably be limited.

Jan 1, 2005

Risk management has taken on renewed vigor since the economic crisis of the late 2000s. The resources of governments, individuals, and corporations are being stretched to a point where only the most promising projects move forward. Risk management is a crucial part of the decision making process, yet it remains a broad term that includes disciplines from engineering to finance. A collaborative effort will be necessary to ensure that the most auspicious and appropriate projects are the ones moving forward. Risk management can be quantified to an extent by comparing the likelihood of an instance with the result of consequence of the instance occurring. In this manner it is possible to assign risk factors to instances and ultimately, begin to associate monetary value to the instance. Carbon sequestration is an emerging field that has a number of unique challenges. Risk management and mitigation must be an integral part of the overall picture. This begins with the planning and design phase, continues through implementation and production, site closure, and does not cease until termination of liability. The ability of carbon sequestration projects to successfully assess, mitigate, and recover from leaks will be a decisive characteristic of overall success. The costs of mitigation and failure will need to be analyzed on a test level, but will still need to be reliable enough to extrapolate to a commercial level operation. This paper will build a risk management profile based on case studies and field tests in Tennessee and Virginia. These tests are scheduled to commence in late 2013 and consist of small-scale injection tests in unconventional storage reservoirs with an emphasis on enhanced coalbed methane (ECBM) recovery and enhanced gas recovery. The ultimate goal will be to provide a clear and concise direction to move carbon sequestration from the test phase to commercial scale. While it is necessary from a risk management perspective to analyze all risk points, the scope of this paper will focus on pre-injection risk assessment for carbon dioxide (CO2) leakage potential. Despite the differences between the two tests, CBM compared to shale among other differences, a framework for analysis and mitigation can be developed pertaining to leakage risk. The probability of each type of failure will be assessed and analyzed, and plans to mitigate or reduce these risks will be reviewed.

Aug 1, 2013

By Mike Robotham

Drum hoists in the 21st century have the same fundamental objective as their earliest 19th century counterpart. And yet a lot has changed in the design of the hoist from those early days of underground mining. These changes are driven by the need for greater productivity and reliability at ever increasing depths without compromising the all important safety demanded by the industry today. This paper reflects on how these changes have influenced design of a modern hoist Director of Engineering, Mike Robotham is a chartered engineer and has been with DavyMarkham for over 30 years. Having completed a craft apprenticeship he later joined the engineering department as a junior engineer. He has a wealth of experience of working on medium to large engineering projects in the field of mechanical, electrical and hydraulic equipment

May 1, 2013

By Balmer Neilly

We are regularly told that before making a new investment one should seek the advice of his banker. If we were to place the subject matter of this paper before bankers. other than those who have experience in our mining camps, their reply would probably be evasive. However, if for example: a mining company asks them for a loan and offers as security certain mining investments, they are, in most cases, explosively candid. The idea is preposterous, unless, under Section 88 of the Bank Act, the mining company is able to deposit with the bank, gold or silver bullion, to an amount sufficiently in excess of the loan, to provide for what the banker describes as a reasonable margin of safety in case of contingencies. In addition the directors of the mine personally must jointly and severally guarantee payment of the loan. With any of these conditions missing the banking atmosphere becomes chilly. The local manager explains that the general situation, and particularly European conditions, are so unsettled that head office has warned him that his discretionary powers must not be exceeded under any circumstances.

Jan 1, 1924

By H. C. Cooke

Those who have followed the geological developments in connection with the copper deposits of Quebec will recall that on many properties the sulphide bodies occur as replacements of fault breccias or tuff breccias, and exhibit a pronounced distaste for the more massive lavas. At the same time the rocks around the ore-bodies are profundly altered, first by addition of silica and sericite, later by conversion of these minerals into chlorite. It has been known for some years that at the Amulet and Waite-Ackerman Montgomery mines these conditions do not prevail. At both mines the ore-bodies are replacements of massive lavas, and at the Amulet they are associated with a very peculiar rock christened ?spotted dog', or 'dalmatianite'. Accordingly, when in 1929 the writer had the opportunity to make a further examination of these properties, two problems presented themselves for solution. The first was to determine, if possible, the conditions under which massive lava, rather than breccia, is replaced by the sulphide masses; the second, to find out the exact nature of dalmatianite and its relations to the sulphide bodies. The first of these problems is believed to have been solved; the second has been found very complex, and will require further work before it is satisfactorily settled.

Jan 1, 1930

By H. Kroog

"This contribution reports recent mineral sorting experience and lists the possibilities of the newest generation of automatic mineral sorters with a special focus on electromagnetic detection, optoelectronic technology and the latest innovative X- Ray transmission units. In industry, mineral and ore are still hand-picked and current automation potential is only utilised in a handful of specific applications. Recently a number of technological developments took place that may increase sorting potential, save mill costs and lead to lower overall tonnage costs. The mentioned technologies provide automatic dry separation of minerals and rock as an alternative for conventional processing. The MikroSort technology is environmentally friendly:•,The remaining waste is free of contaminations•,The dump volume is reduced•,The concentration of the high grade material•,at an early stage saves resources"

Jan 1, 2005

By F. R. Archibald

Introduction It is the purpose of this paper to review the subject of roasting as preparation of refractory gold ores and concentrates for cyanidation, with particular reference to operations at the mill of Beattie Gold Mines (Que.), Ltd., Duparquet, Quebec. Two earlier papers relating to the Beattie roasting operations are cited as background to the ? present discussion, and more general reference is made to other publications relating? to geology and metallurgy at Beattie. The Beattie roasting plant was built in 1937 as an addition to the existing flotation and cyanidation plant to permit complete processing of the ore at the mine property. Previously, the flotation concentrate had been cyanided, yielding 70 per cent of the gold values, followed by re-flotation of a concentrate from the cyanide residue. This re-floated residue was shipped to a smelter for recovery of gold values unavailable from direct cyanidation. The roasting plant itself is of interest through application in its design of multiple-hearth roasters and a Cottrell plant for separate recovery of dust and arsenic. In the laboratory and plant studies that accompanied development of the plant into a dependable and efficient working unit have been found principles and ideas applicable to other roasting 'problems. Before enlarging on these aspects relating particularly to the Beattie problems and plant, brief consideration is given to roasting in general.

Jan 1, 1949

By Gustavo Angeloci

Artisanal mining is a rudimentary activity that today attracts over 30 million people in virtually all developing countries around the world. As the price of gold has steadily increased over the past decade, 15 million people have become involved in extracting this metal in 55 countries. Individuals have switched to mining from primary industrial sectors such as agriculture to increase their income. These workers generally have little capital, low education levels, and no previous experience in mining. Together with a lack of technical support from governments, these factors lead to disorganized and informal mining activities that generate environmental and social chaos. The absence of technical knowledge and capital has caused a proliferation of Gold Ore Processing Centres (GOPCs) around the world established by local entrepreneurs, who provide a way for miners to process their ores using amalgamation for a fee that is relatively low to non-existent. Gold recovery by the independent miners rarely exceeds 30 % and gold-rich tailings are left at GOPC facilities as a form of payment. GOPCs recover around 90 % of the remaining gold using cyanidation, flotation, and amalgamation, without any compensation paid to the miners. In processing these mercury (Hg)-contaminated tailings, Hg cyanide complexes are produced that are dumped into aquatic environments, leading to rapid bioaccumulation of Hg by fish. In the town of Portovelo, Ecuador, the establishment of partnerships between GOPC entrepreneurs and artisanal miners has proven to be successful in forming legal small-mining companies to create more equity and reduce pollution. About 108 GOPCs operate in Portovelo-Zaruma, with 40 % of these still working illegally without proper regulation and permitting. Over 20 % of these GOPCs continue to use grinding, concentrating and amalgamating of the gold, with 58 % performing cyanidation of tailings and/or gravity concentrates, and 15 % combining flotation with cyanidation. About 94 % of the GOPCs concentrate the ore prior to applying amalgamation, which significantly reduces Hg emissions to the environment. Incorporating flotation has given the operators increased skills in mineral recovery, with the side benefit of producing a copper concentrate as added value. Despite these innovations, mineral recovery is still inefficient, and waste management is a major challenge in creating true sustainability in this sector (technical efficiency together with social and environmental responsibilities). Further organization, training and capacity-building are needed. The principles of Lean Manufacturing Methods ("Just in Time" production and "Automation") are suggested as possible techniques to assist small GOPCs to become sustainable. In this concept, a larger mining company can become associated with artisanal miners in a partnership to provide training and investment for exploitation of small deposits that would be infeasible as a single large operation. As well, an International Training Centre for Artisanal Miners (ITCAM) is being established in Portovelo with collaboration of the Government of Ecuador to further enhance and upgrade mining activities in this region. ITCAM will provide artisanal miners with technical, business and environmental training to become responsible small-scale miners. In building this new capacity, ITCAM intends to create an atmosphere of trust to attract private and corporate investors to become partners with artisanal miners.

Aug 1, 2013

By R. K. Jonas

"Pressure leaching and pressure oxidation in autoclaves are important alternatives in the extractive processing of gold, copper and nickel ores. The application of advanced control to pressure leach and pressure oxidation autoclaves could achieve significant benefits as has been shown in alumina pressure leaching. This paper compares and contrasts alumina digestion autoclaves to other mining autoclaves with respect to advanced controls. The application of advanced control in alumina with over 30 units controlled worldwide, and its benefits will be reviewed. The design and potential benefits from advanced control for pressure oxidation and leaching will be presented.INTRODUCTIONIt is this author's position and the purpose of this paper to propose that advanced control could be effectively applied to autoclaves in the nickel, gold, and copper mining processes. This is based on the proven effectiveness of advanced control on autoclaves used in the alumina industry for pressure leaching of bauxite ores. Incremental, but significant increases in production could be realized by applying advanced control to autoclaves, as evidenced by the alumina industry, and this not being implemented in other autoclaves in the mining industry.In addition, today the mining industry is being challenged to improve their production methods. In some markets like nickel, there is pressure to improve productivity and reduce the cash cost per ton. While in other markets like copper and gold, demand is vigorous with favourable pricing, and there are advantages to increase production and productivity given limited plant capacity. Advanced control has proven its capability to improve mineral processing operations through increases in throughput, recovery, as well as reducing variability. In today's mines, autoclaves are being used to a much larger scale and with much larger importance, thus it would be beneficial to improve operational performance through the use of advanced control.Accordingly, it is the author supposition that an opportunity exists in the mining industry to use a proven advanced control technology to improve the operations and financial performance of mines using autoclaves."

Jan 1, 2012

By P. B. Queneau, Peter V. Avotins, Lauch F. Farris

"The Lang Bay germanium property is a carbonaceous sandstone deposit outcropping near the Pacific coast, 100 km north of Vancouver. The germanium-bearing seams are up to 5 m thick. Where one such seam outcrops, it averages 50 to 60 g Ge/tonne. Drill core analyses have shown considerably greater concentrations of germanium at depth. Additional drilling to establish continuity and grade of the germanium-b earing strata is scheduled for 1986. The germanium occurs in association with lignite, which makes up 1 to 2% of the seam. American Cyanamid Company engineers have developed a proprietary flotation reagent effective for concentrating the germanium rich vitrain portion of the Lang Bay lignite. Ongoing laboratory studies are developing procedures for further upgrading and refining of this germanium. This paper outlines progress made by Fargo Oil Corporation on Lang Bay geology, reserve estimation, mine planning, ore dressing, refining, and economic evaluation.IntroductionIn 1871, Mendeleyev specula ted on the properties of a ""missing"" element between silico n and tin on the periodic table. The discovery of germanium fifteen years later proved the Mendeleyev predictions to be remarkably accurate. Almo half a century later, the pioneering work of McCutcheon of Eagle-Picher led to production of germanium dioxide from Oklahoma zinc smelting residues. Demand for the element surged due to development of the Ge02 diode rectifier during World War II, followed by development of the transistor in 1947. The chief commercial sources for germanium during the following two decades were the Cu-Zn mines in the Congo and the Zn-Cu-Pb mines of Tsumeb in Southwest Africa. The germanium was chemically combined in complex Cu-Fe sulphides (germanite and renierite), from which the element was recovered either by leaching the selectively roasted sulphide, or by direct fuming of GeS(I). Although these deposits have reportedly been depleted (2), new deposits of renierite have been discovered in Zaire. Alternative sources of germanium are therefore being sought worldwide for use in infrared optics, semiconductors, fibre optics, and catalysts. One such source is germanium-rich coal (2)."

Jan 1, 1986

By Henri-Louis Jacob

Le secteur des substances non-metalliques repose au Quebec sur !'exploitation et la transformation d'une dizaine de mineraux ainsi que sur la production de materiaux de base destines surtout a l'industrie de la construction. L'ensemble de cette production representait en 1982 une valeur estimee a plus de 797 millions $, soit tout pres de 400Jo de la production minerale du Quebec. L'amiante et Jes scories de titane destines a la production de pigments, qui comptent parmi Jes plus importantes substances minerales produites au Quebec, representent respectivement 370Jo et I 70Jo de la valeur totale des non-metalliques tandis que le groupe des materiaux de construction represente pres de 400Jo. Les autres substances, parmi lesquelles ressortent nettement la tourbe, la silice et la magnesite, representent une valeur totale de 61.5 millions $.

Jan 1, 1984