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By Nathan C. Rockwood

BASIC mineral commodities may be divided into two general classifications in their market or price characteristics. In one class are commodities sold on a world-wide basis, as gold, silver, nickel, asbestos and petroleum, and in the second are those produced and sold locally. Of course, no precise line of demarcation exists between the two; coal, for instance, belongs more or less in both. If there are enough producers of any commodity to prevent control of production by any one person or group, a free market then exists and the price in a buyer's market is determined by the most favored producer-meaning the producer, with the lowest production cost or the lowest cost of transportation, or both, to the particular market, or place of use. With minerals in the first classification, their high intrinsic value far outweighs the transportation cost and a uniform market price is accepted as an essential element in the economy of distribution. But with common minerals of small. intrinsic value and relatively high transportation costs, economists are reluctant to admit that a uniform price may also be an essential element in distribution.

Jan 1, 1940

F A. THOMSON, president of the Montana School of Mines, gave an interesting talk on mining schools of the past, present and his ideas of the future before a recent meeting of the Montana Section of the A. I. M. E. He covered the history .of the various mining schools and com- pared the three main types of schools; those attached to or forming part of an endowed college or university such, for example, as' the Columbia School of Mines, the Mining Department of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Mining Department of Stanford University. These resemble in a general way the second class, those attached to the state universities and colleges. The schools of this general type have had varied success.

Jan 1, 1928

By P. H. Mell

AMONG the minerals exhibited at the Atlanta Exhibition of 1881, soapstone, kaolin, and asbestos were well represented. The first two occur in large quantities, of very pure quality, throughout the South. The last is somewhat limited in amount, yet in certain localities it exists in masses sufficiently large to pay for working; in North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama it has been mined with some profit. I would, in this paper, call special attention to the minerals soapstone and kaolin, because their many valuable qualities seem to have been al most entirely overlooked by our Southern manufacturers. Steatite, particularly, occurs in such large quantities, and generally in such close proximity to the great iron regions of Alabama and Georgia, that it is amazing that the iron companies will persist in sending abroad under. heavy expense for firebrick. It would require a much smaller sum of money to quarry this rock and place it at the various furnaces ; and the results obtained, I am sure, would prove its superiority over the majority of firebrick brought into this region. Soapstone, as well as kaolin, is found throughout the metamorphic regions of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Below-will be found seven analyses that I have made of this mineral, taken from various points in the four States above mentioned. I have also subjected these same specimens to severe fire-tests, and the results were very satisfactory. The tests were conducted in the following manner: Small portions of the compact variety were carefully weighed and placed in a Fletcher's new crucible furnace for gas, and subjected for half an hour to a heat that will in 12 minutes fuse iron. The only effect upon these specimens was a slight change in color .to a darker shade, a small loss in weight, due evidently to the evaporation of water, and, in one or two specimens, a slight degree of fusion on the sharp edges. The first specimen subjected to investigation was taken from a large outcropping in Tallapoosa County, Alabama. Specific gravity, 2.88 ; hardness, 1.9; color, blue gray. Composition Water, - 2.68 Silica, - 65.46 Iron oxide, - 2.10 Alumina, - 15.02 Magnesia, - 15.35 100.61

Jan 1, 1882

By D. K. Bose, C. K. Gupta, K. U. Nair

A new approach to processing an indigenously available low made molysulfide concentrate by chlorination with elemental chlorine in presence of oxygen is reported. Recovery of nickel and copper values associated with the sulfide concentrate by suitably treating the residue obtained after chlorination is also reported.

Jan 3, 1978

By AIME AIME

The following changes of address of members have been received at the Secretary's office during the period of Jan. 1 to Mar. 15, 1907. This list therefore supplements the annual list of members corrected to Jan. 1, 1907, and brings it up to the date of Mar. 15, 1907. The names of members who have accepted election during January and February, 1907 (new members), are printed in italics. The large number of changes of address since Jan. 1, 1907, shows the importance of publishing these changes as frequently as possible, and the Bi-Monthly Bulletin has been selected as the means to present this information to the members of the Institute. By a simple method of cutting out these names and addresses and pasting them directly over the corresponding names in the annual list of members, the record can be kept practically up to date, and the value of the list correspondingly increased. For this purpose the changes of address have been printed only on one side of the page. The names of new members, being in italics, are readily distinguished from the others, and can be pasted in approximate alphabetical order on the margins of the pages.

Mar 1, 1907

By M. J. Sinnot, J. C. Shyne

Low-frequency mechanical damping measurements were made to investigate internal friction in Fe-A1 alloys. The atomic ordering of the Fe-A1 system strongly influenced the stress-induced ordering internal friction. Magnetoelastic damping was also encounteyed and was shown to be reduced by the application of a static stress. THIS paper describes some damping experiments made on alloys of Fe and Al. Stress-induced ordering internal friction was measured with samples containing from 9.8 to 31.3 at. pct Al. Aluminum is soluble in a-Fe to about 50 at. pct and forms at least two long-range ordered structures, Fe3Al and Feu.' Stress-induced ordering internal friction is known to occur in many substitutional solid solutions, but few measurements of this damping effect have been made with alloy systems that have pronounced ordering tendencies. LeClair and Lomer developed expressions relating the relaxation strength of the damping process to the degree of atomic ordering and predicted that stress-induced ordering internal friction would be zero with complete ordering.' This concept was confirmed experimentally by Lulay and Wert using the system cd-Mg It is also consistent with the weak stress-induced ordering peaks observed in P -brass by Artman and in 16 wt pct Al Fe-Al by bert.' It was expected, therefore that the ordering characteristics of the system Fe-Al would strongly influence the stress-induced ordering internal friction exhibited by the experimental alloys. SAMPLE PREPARATION The alloys used in this investigation were induction melted under vacuum using high-purity melting stock. The iron was electrolytically refined Plastiron 101 which contained 99.85 wt pct Fe. The aluminum was a special 99.95 pct pure grade supplied by Alcoa. The only other raw material was spectrographically pure graphite which was used in small quantities as a deoxidant. The amount of carbon used was slightly in excess of the amount required to completely deoxidize the melt; this resulted in residual carbon contents of 0.01 to 0.02 pct in the finished alloys. The vacuum cast 2 1/2-in. diam ingots were hot rolled to 5/8-in. diam round bars. Portions of these bars were hot swaged and hot drawn to 0.050-in. diam wire. Straight pieces of the hot drawn wire were slowly heated to a temperature of 1300°C in a He atmosphere. After holding for 4 hr, the samples were allowed to cool in the furnace. This annealing treatment resulted in grain growth in the samples, the final grain size being about the same as the wire diameter. The grain boundaries were oriented perpendicularly to the wire axis, giving a bamboo grain structure. The existence of a preferred orientation could not be detected in these coarse grained samples. If the samples had a fiber structure, this probably would have been the same in all samples because of similar processing, thus the influence of crystal orientation on the relaxation strength would have been similar in all samples. The aluminum contents of the alloys are listed in Table I. EQUIPMENT The principle of the torsion pendulum was used for the internal friction measuring device. The

Jan 1, 1961

By P. H. Mell

AMONG the minerals exhibited at the Atlanta Exhibition of 1881, soapstone, kaolin, and asbestos were well represented. The first two occur in large quantities, of very pure quality, throughout the South. The last is somewhat limited in amount, get in certain localities it exists in masses sufficiently large to pay for working; in North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama it has ken mined with some profit. I would, in this paper, call special attention to the minerals soapstone and kaolin, because their many valuable qualities seem to have been almost entirely overlooked by our Southern manufacturers. Steatite, particularly, occurs in such large quantities, and generally in such close proximity to the great iron regions of Alabama and Georgia, that it is anlazing that the iron companies will persist in sending abroad under heavy expense for firebrick. It would require a much smaller sum of money to quarry this rock and place it at the various furnaces ; and the results obtained, I am sure, would prove its superiority over the majority of firebrick brought into this region. Soapstone, as well as kaolin, is found throughout the metamorphic regions of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Below will be found seven analyses that I have made of this mineral, taken from various points in the four States above mentioned. I have also subjected these same specimens to severe fire-tests, and the results were very satisfactory. The tests mere canducted in the following manner: Small portions of the compact variety were carefully weighed and placed in a Fletcher's new crucible furnace for gas, and subjected for half an hour to a heat that will in 12 minutes fuse iron. The only effect upon these specimens was a slight change in color to a darker shade, a small loss in weight, due evidently to the evaporation of water, and, in one or two specimens, a slight degree of fusion on the sharp edges. The first specimen subjected to investigation was taken from a large outcropping in Tallapoosa County, Alabama. Specific gravity, 2.88 ; hardness, 1.9; color, blue gray. Composition: Water,....2.68 Silica,..........65.48 Iron oxide,.........2.10 Alumina,.........15.02 Magnesia,... 15.35 10061

Jan 1, 1882

By R. M. Waterstrat, E. C. van Reuth

BINARY- alloy phases having the A15-type crystal structure have been described as occurring at a simple and more or less invariant stoichiometric composition (A3B) which corresponds to the relative number of atoms occupying each of the two crystallographi lattice sites in this structure.1,2 It is frequently assumed, therefore, that each crystallographic site is occupied exclusively by one kind of atom. In most cases, however, there have been insufficient experimental data to establish whether atomic ordering is, in fact, complete. Recent studies have shown that binary A15-type phases are sometimes stable over an appreciable composition range3''* and, occasionally, the composition range of stability does not even include the "ideal" A3B stoichiometric composition.5-7 We have observed the existence of nonstoichiometric A15-type phases in the binary systems Cr-Pt and Cr-Os. This has not been reported in previous work on these alloy systems.1,8-11 A series of alloys, each weighing approximately 30 g, was prepared by are-melting in an Ar-He atmosphere using 99.999 pct Cr, 99.999 pct Os, and 99.99 pct Pt as starting materials. Each alloy was melted four times with a total weight loss of less than 1 pct. The stoichiometric (A3B) alloys were sealed in evacuated quartz tubes and annealed at 1200°C for periods of time ranging from 3 days to 2 months. Examination of the alloy microstructures revealed that little change had occurred over this time interval and it was therefore assumed that the microstructures were fairly representative of equilibrium conditions. No evidence of contamination was observed although there was apparently some loss of chromium which was confined to a thin layer at the surface of the specimens. The quartz tubes were quenched from the annealing temperature into cold water. X-ray diffraction and metallographic examination of the stoichiometric alloys revealed an estimated 10 to 30 pct of second phases which were tentatively identified as phases previously reported in these binary-alloy systems.8-11 A second series of alloys was prepared by mixing -325 mesh metal powders having a nominal purity of 99.9 pct and compressing these mixed powders in a cylindrical die at a pressure of 43,000 psi. These alloys, each weighing 15 g, and some of the arc-melted alloys were annealed in a high-temperature vacuum furnace heated by tantalum strips at a pressure of 10-8 Torr and were rapidly cooled by turning off the furnace power. X-ray and metallographic examination of both series of alloys served to establish the composition ranges of the A15-type phases. Although some chromium losses occurred during the vacuum annealing, they were largely confined to a thin layer on the outer surfaces of the samples. It was established that the A15 phases occur in the Cr-Pt system at 21 ± 1 at. pct Pt after 1 week at 1200°C and in the Cr-Os system at 28 ± 1 at. pctOs after 1 day at 1400°C (see Table I). We also observed that an arc-melted stoichiometric (A3B) alloy in the Cr-Ir system was single-phase (A15-type) in the "as-cast" condition in agreement with previous work.8,13 In addition we obtained a sample of the Cr-Os A15-type phase from Argonne National Laboratory. This alloy contained less than 1 pct second phase12 and was submitted to a density measurement. The density measurement yielded a value of 11.14 g per cu cm in comparison to a theoretical value of 11.25 g per cu cm calculated using the observed lattice constant (4.6806Å) of this alloy. The uncertainty in measurement was 0.1 pct but the sample may have contained some cracks or minor imperfections which could account for the low experimental value. We have also studied the atomic ordering in these phases by means of integrated line intensity measurements using thick, flat, rotating powder samples and CuK a radiation in an X-ray diffractometer. We have obtained order parameters of 0.90 for the Cr-Pt phase, 0.89 for the Cr-Ir phase, and 0.64 for the Cr-Os phase using the formula: where s is the usual Bragg and Williams order parameter, ra is the fraction of chromium atoms in A sites, and FA is the fraction of chromium atoms in the alloy. The values obtained are estimated to be accurate within ±4 pct. If the unusually small value for the order parameter of the Cr-Os A15 phase were due to the existence of lattice vacancies on the "B-atom" sites, then a density of 10.04 g per cu cm would be expected in contrast to the observed value of 11.14 g per cu cm. We, therefore. conclude that the fraction of lattice vacan-

Jan 1, 1967

By John W. Weeton, Donald W. Petrasek

Relatively few metal-metal systems exist that would permit the creation of fiber-metal composites consisting of mutually insoluble constituents. It is anticipated that most high strength-to-weight ratio and high -temperature fiber composites ultimately to be produced will utilize high-strength fibers embedded in a highly alloyed matrix. An investigation was conducted to determine the effect of alloying on the tensile Properties and micro-structure of tungsten-fibey-reinforced composites. Composites were made of tungsten fibers infiltrated with copper binary alloys that contain elements of varying solubility in tungsten. Room-temperature tensile tests were made on the composites, and a metallographic study of the microstructure of the fiber-metal-matrix interfaces was conducted. It was shown that, as the depth of penetration of some alloying elements into the fiber increased, a decrease in both tensile strength and ductility of the composite results. A notch effect, due to the formation of a brittle alloy zone with the tungsten fiber, was observed and gave rise to greater reductions in tensile properties and ductility behavior than would be Predicted by a law-of-mixture relation alone. In recent years, investigators have considered combining fibrous materials with relatively weak binder materials. The interest in fiber-reinforced composites results from the fact that fibers or wires may be exceedingly strong and exhibit mechanical properties superior to those of the bulk materials from which they are derived. For example, tungsten wires drawn to less than 1 mil in diameter may have strengths of over 600,000 psi,' while steel wires ranging from 10 to 3 mils in diameter may have strengths of the order of 300,000 to over 600,000 psi.2 Both metallic and ceramic whiskers are known to have very high strengths. For example, iron whiskers have been shown to have strengths of 1.9 million psi3 and sapphire whiskers have been reported to have strengths of the order of 1.7 million psi.4 If all or part of the strengths of such fibers could be retained, subsequent to the incorporation of the fibers in an engineering material, a superior material could result. In previous work done at the Lewis Research Center, McDanels, Jech, and weeton5 demonstrated the feasibility of fabricating metal-fiber—metal-matrix composites that utilized the full strengths of the fiber and matrix materials. Tungsten fibers were combined with a copper matrix by a liquid-infiltration method such that the tungsten fibers were uniaxially oriented parallel to the tensile axis of the composite. A linear relation was established that related the tensile strength of the composite with the volume percent of the fibers. Mutually insoluble constituents were selected for the study so that the strength of the composite could be quantitatively related to the strength of the individual constituents. The fact that there are only a few metals that are mutually insoluble with tungsten, e.g., copper, silver, gold, and zinc, and that these either have low melting points, high vapor pressures, or poor oxidation resistance, makes it necessary to utilize other metals that are soluble in tungsten, where high-temperature applications are ultimately contemplated. It was anticipated that, for most practical fiber-reinforced composite materials, it would be necessary to use a fiber and metallic matrix that would have varying degrees of solubility for each other. A logical extension of the earlier work was thus felt to be a study that would determine the effects of elements that had mutual solubility with the tungsten. Numerous investigators have found that tungsten fibers may be damaged by thermal treatments or contamination of the surface of the fiber by alloying elements.6-10 On the other hand, surface treatments may improve the strength of such fibers."-" Relatively little work with composites containing tungsten fibers have been reported. The work of parikh14 has shown that kinked, short-length tungsten, steel, and molybdenum fibers could str'engthen such matrices as silver, gold, and copper. Some of the combinations of fibers and matrices studied by

Jan 1, 1964

By P. K. Koh

Chi phase (body-centered cubic, a = 8.89A) was found in as-cast 23 pct Cr-10 pct Mo-Fe alloy as well as in heat-treated 316, 316L, 317, and modified 446 stainless steels. Chi phase resembles sigma phase in its metastability, chemical composition, and brittleness. Microstructure and some of physical properties of chi phase were developed. MOLYBDENUM has been established as a desirable alloying element for the enhancement of corrosion resistance in Cr-Ni steels and creep and rupture strength in high temperature alloys. On the debit side, however, the molybdenum addition has been known to stimulate u formation. When the molybdenum-bearing steels were subjected to prolonged heating at elevated temperatures, losses of corrosion resistance and/or ductility have been observed. Andrews1,2 first found the existence of a new phase among the anodic FeC13 extracts from type 316 stainless steel solution treated and then reheated from 800" to 1100°C. This phase was designated x and was identified by diffraction patterns as of body-centered cubic structure with a value equal to 8.89? and similar to that of a manganese. He found that the x phase in this steel always coexisted with s phase, but failed to distinguish one from the other by metallographic technique. No definite conclusion was drawn regarding the equilibrium temperature ranges of these two phases. The appearance of Andrew's work recalled an un- explained structure observed several years ago at the Allegheny Ludlum Research Laboratories during the investigation of an experimental alloy containing 25 pct Cr, 10 pct Mo, and balance Fe. X-ray diffraction patterns on the as-cast material revealed the presence of a body-centered cubic phase having a lattice parameter of 8.89?. The structure was sufficiently similar to that of y chromium that for a time it was thought that the structure might be caused by the presence of some undissolved electrolytic chromium particles. The alloy as-cast was so brittle that it shattered after the slightest hot reduction by hammer cogging. This paper gives the results of some metallographic and X-ray diffraction studies on x phase as found in several experimental alloys as well as a few molybdenum-bearing commercial stainless steels. The analyses of materials studied were as shown in Table I. Experimental Procedure Metallography: Solid specimens were polished mechanically and etched in boiling 50 pct HC1 solution in order to best delineate x and s phases in the alloys studied. X-Ray Diffraction: The difficulty of satisfactorily developing diffraction lines for s phase in solid specimens has been previously reported by Bindari, Koh, and Zmeskal.V or this reason all specimens used in this investigation were subjected to anodic

Jan 1, 1954

"The mountains of Utah contain one of the largest deposits of high grade bituminous coal in the world. According to the United States Geological Survey, there are 13,130 square miles of land known to contain workable coal, and these extensive fields contain 196,000,000,000 tons of coal. More remarkable than the extent of the coal fields is the thickness of the coal beds. Over three-fourths of the output of coal in Utah is recovered from beds ranging from 8 to 17 feet in thickness, as compared to one-eighth of the output of the entire country from such beds. In 1917, Utah mined one-third of its coal from seams at least 16 feet thick, compared to one-half of one per cent of the total bituminous output of the country from like seams.Coal at Wales, in Sanpete County, and in the vicinity of Coalville, Utah, was, it is reported, the first discovered by white men in the state. Wales claims the distinction of having produced the first coal mined in Utah. Two men, who had been coal miners in Wales, learned of the coal from an old Indian chief who called it ""rock that would burn."" In 1857, the town of Wales was founded and coal mined, and in 1858 some coke was manufactured and hauled by ox team to Salt Lake City. South of Wales is Castle Valley, in Wasatch Plateau field. From 50 to 60 miles of the Old Spanish Trail from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to Monterey, California, lies in Castle Valley. The coal in this field may or may not have been known at the time the trail was used extensively. The first published reference to this coal, however, was made by a party of the Corps of Topographic Engineers in their journal for October 11, 1853.After the completion of the Union Pacific railroad in 1869, mining on a commercial scale was attempted. In 1876 the Utah and Pleasant Valley railroad commenced operations between Scofield, in Carbon county, and Springville, Utah county, and following the year 1878, when the Rio Grande Western railway began construction through the Carbon county field, development increased until in 1900, when large smelters commenced operations in Salt Lake valley and gave coal mining in Utah an impetus that first carried it to an annual output of a million tons. During the past fifteen years many new mines have been opened, and with the construction of the Utah railway, an exclusive coal road, from the properties of the United States Fuel company in Carbon and Emery counties to connect with the Union Pacific system at Provo, the state reached a maximum production of 6,005, l 99 tons in 1920."

Jan 1, 1925

By H. N. Lawrie

Introduction. THIS study was undertaken on account of the lack of definite knowledge concerning the influence of bismuth on wire-bar copper, and the small elimination of bismuth from copper-matte during the smelting-operations. The early workers who studied the influence of bismuth on copper confined their investigations to malleability and ductility-two physical properties which are related to the others so intimately that their determination is of primary importance. Karsten ' and Levol,2 using bending- and mealleability-tests, seem to have been the first to take up the subject, and while their results are incomplete, they agree in the main with the later work of Hampe.3 The bending-tests used by the first investigators consisted in bending the specimen until it failed. The malleabilitytests were made by beating the material to a knife-edge with a hammer. Hampe not only determined the percentage of bismuth which would cause red-shortness and cold-shortness of the alloy, together with other influences of bismuth on the malleability and ductility of copper, but also took up the influence of the bismuth protoxide, BiO, on copper, and of bismuth sesquioxide, Bi2O3, on the copper protoxide, CuO. Hampe's conclusions of the influences of these two latter compounds of bismuth on copper are as follows "If the protoxide of bismuth be alloyed with metallic copper, it is not changed to metallic bismuth, but remains mechanically distributed throughout the copper.

Sep 1, 1909

By Gary E. Parish

TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents I. Introduction II. Purpose of the Paper III. Historical Perspective A. Existing Sources B. New Sources (NSPS) C. Hazardous Pollutants (NESHAPS) D. Enforcement/Judicial Review 1. Title I Enforcement 2. Title III Enforcement 3. Information Gathering E. Summary IV. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 (1977 Act) A. SIP-Related Provisions 1. Section 107(d) - Geographic Boundaries 2. Section 108 - Air Quality Criteria 3. Section 109 – NAAQS 4. Section 110 – SIPs 5. Section 122 and Sections 402 and 403 of P.L 95-95 – Unregulated Pollutants 6. Emission Offsets – Interpretive Ruling (I.R.) B. PSD Provisions - Part C. 1. Regulations Under the 1970 Act 2. The 1977 Act 3. Regulations Under the 1977 Act C. Visibility Protection - Part C, Subpart 2 D. Non-Attainment Provisions - Part D E. Monitoring and Modeling F. NSPS G. NESHAPS H. Enforcement/Judicial Review 1. Title I 2. Economic Enforcement 3. Title III Enforcement/Judicial Review (a) Section 304 (b) Section 307 4. Summary V. Special Problems and Opportunities for the Uranium Industry A. End Use B. Transportation C. Milling/Processing D. Extraction E. Exploration/Discovery F. General VI. Conclusions Appendix A Footnotes

Jan 1, 1979

By Mark R. Lamb

The treatment of slime is of special interest to those engaged in cyaniding gold- and silver-ores. The usual practice is to make as small a percentage of slime as possible. In many instances the slime is given no treatment, but is impounded in dams in the hope that the future will develop some method of economically treating this product. The filter-press was the first step upward from ordinary decantation, but, on account of heavy labor-charge and high cost, its use has been limited to high-grade material. The slime at the Combination mill at Goldfield averages perhaps $20 per ton, and although the values are quickly dis solved the filter-press installation was not entirely satisfactory, resulting in the erection of the canvas-cell filter, developed by Chas. Butters and his staff. This filter is a great improvement over the filter-press, and the following description of it will be of interest to those engaged in treating slime produced in crushing ores, especially in view of the fact that, by the use of this filter, slime can be treated at a lesser cost and with a higher percentage of gold- or silver-extraction than in the ordinary treatment of sand; and, moreover, the initial outlay for an all-sliming plant is less than that for the ordinary sand- and slime-plant. The economy of construction of the Butters filter-plant is clearly shown in Figs. 1 and 2, which illustrate the 20-frame filter of 40 tons capacity, now being installed by the Nevada Goldfield Reduction Co. In this construction the slime-pump is so connected that it call pump to or from either tank or the filter by changing the valve-settinga—a combination which is necessary in this particular installation, since sufficient fall is not available for filling and discharging the filter by gravity. Ordinarily, a slime-plant comprises: a filter-box with frames

Jan 1, 1908

By E. P. Polushkin, Henry L. Shuldener

THIS paper describes the results of microscopic examination of a series of brass pipes removed from apartment and office buildings in New York City, adjacent localities on Long Island, and Philadelphia. They were selected as typical of approximately four hundred pipe specimens obtained over a period of five years during an investigation of corrosion in hot-water installations. A part of the investigation is reported in this paper and includes a brief history of the pipes, a description of their inside surface and microstructure, and a study of the effects of corrosion, with particular reference to the structural aspects of local and selective dezincification. Although the bibliography on the corrosion of brass pipes is quite extensive, it refers almost entirely to corrosion in sea water. The authors believe that their examination of this series of pipes, which had been subjected to the corrosive action of fresh water for various lengths of time, may throw some additional light on the problem of corrosion. PIPES EXAMINED The pipes were made by different manufacturers and their sizes range from ¾ in. to 4 in. nominal inside diameter, the majority being within I to 2 in. They can be divided into two groups according to chemical composition: (I) with a copper content of 60 to 62 per cent and (2) with a copper content of 65 to 68 per cent. The first group (pipes made of Muntz metal) comprises 22 pipes and the second (pipes made of high brass) comprises 18 pipes. The pipes had been in service in various locations in the hot-water systems of the buildings involved. Some were taken from horizontal lines in the basement, some from overhead distributors and some from vertical risers. The distance, in terms of feet of pipe, of the specimens from the hot-water generator was no less than 75 ft. and often 100 to 300 ft. In the majority of cases the water-heating equipment was provided with a regulator to limit the temperature of the hot water supply. The normal range of temperature in pipe systems of this kind is 100° to 160°F. WATER SUPPLIES The average chemical composition of the water supplies carried by the pipes is shown in Table I. In evaluating the corrosiveness of a natural water, four factors are considered of prime importance: namely, hardness, alkalinity, pH and silica content. The waters listed in Table I are characterized by relatively low hardness, low alkalinity, low pH and low silica content. The waters of lower pH and higher CO2 content are more corrosive. A characteristic of all of these waters is that they do not deposit a protective mineral coating as do waters with high bicarbonate of lime content, which would be reflected

Jan 1, 1944

C. Le Neve FosteR, Llandudno, Wales: I regret that Prof. Clowes is not here, and also that I cannot produce one of his lamps for inspection. The lamp has but just passed the experimental stage, and is now on sale in England for the purpose of testing it in practice. The only complaint I have heard made against it is the high price. It costs six or seven guineas. Possibly that would not frighten you on this side of the water as much as it does us. R. W. RaymonD, Brooklyn, N. Y.: So far as my obsrvations and experience go, we have not yet reached a state of affairs in the coal-mines of this country which calls for the general use of safetylamps by common miners. Certainly such a practice is to be avoided if possible, on account of the recklessness of miners, which it seems almost impossible to control by warning or discipliue. It is much better, if practicable, to confine the use of safety-lamps to inspectors or " fire-bosses," and not to permit the miners to work or to go where naked lights cannot be carried. In a colliery near Pottsville, Pa., with which I was connected for five years, and which had the reputation of being highly "fiery " (jets of fire-damp bubbled continually through the puddles in the gangways, and a thin sheet of it lay along the roof), we managed to avoid all serious

Jan 1, 1894

By Ralph E. Esarey, G. F. Fix

The oil and gas industry in Indiana in 1938 showed considerable improvement over the preceding year. Most of the drilling and development during the year, as in the past several years, was in the Indiana portion of the Illinois Basin, but increasing interest was apparent in the old Trenton area, for possibilities of further production in the Trenton formation and the underlying St. Peter sandstone. Interest in all other portions of the state was at a new peak, since many areas have never been prospected. Natural gas production continued to drop during 1938, since new discoveries have not been able to keep pace with the rapid decline in older areas. Oil production increased considerably, chiefly through the discovery of new fields. Older fields contributed about the same quantity of oil during 1938 as during the preceding year. There were 159 wells completed in Indiana during 1938, an increase of 25 over the preceding year. Of these, 48 were oil wells, 41 were gas, and '70 failed to find commercial production. Forty-three, or about 20 per cent, were wildcat. Six of these were productive—three oil wells and three gas wells. Thirty-nine wells on which operations started during the year had riot been completed by Dec. 31. Fourteen others were temporarily abandoned, with the possibility that several will be drilled to completion in the near future. A new oil field (Heusler) was discovered in May 1938, in sees. 1 and 12, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., Posey County. Production was found in the Waltersburg (Upper (Chester) sandstone at a depth of approximately 1775 ft. At the close of the year, Heusler field had nine producing wells and two drilling. The Point township area, Posey County, near the confluence of the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, held promise of good production from the McClosky lime, but offsets to the, discovery well had only shows of oil. The discovery well declined rapidly in production arid was finally plugged. In the Oaktown field, Knox County, a wildcat came in with a good flow of gas, extending the field to the east, and proving considerably more acreage. A new gas area was discovered in Sullivan County, and four good wells were completed. The discovery well was in sec. 35, T. 8 N., R. 10 W., and had an initial

Jan 1, 1939

By Ralph E. Esarey, G. F. Fix

The oil and gas industry in Indiana in 1938 showed considerable improvement over the preceding year. Most of the drilling and development during the year, as in the past several years, was in the Indiana portion of the Illinois Basin, but increasing interest was apparent in the old Trenton area, for possibilities of further production in the Trenton formation and the underlying St. Peter sandstone. Interest in all other portions of the state was at a new peak, since many areas have never been prospected. Natural gas production continued to drop during 1938, since new discoveries have not been able to keep pace with the rapid decline in older areas. Oil production increased considerably, chiefly through the discovery of new fields. Older fields contributed about the same quantity of oil during 1938 as during the preceding year. There were 159 wells completed in Indiana during 1938, an increase of 25 over the preceding year. Of these, 48 were oil wells, 41 were gas, and '70 failed to find commercial production. Forty-three, or about 20 per cent, were wildcat. Six of these were productive—three oil wells and three gas wells. Thirty-nine wells on which operations started during the year had riot been completed by Dec. 31. Fourteen others were temporarily abandoned, with the possibility that several will be drilled to completion in the near future. A new oil field (Heusler) was discovered in May 1938, in sees. 1 and 12, T. 7 S., R. 12 W., Posey County. Production was found in the Waltersburg (Upper (Chester) sandstone at a depth of approximately 1775 ft. At the close of the year, Heusler field had nine producing wells and two drilling. The Point township area, Posey County, near the confluence of the Wabash and Ohio Rivers, held promise of good production from the McClosky lime, but offsets to the, discovery well had only shows of oil. The discovery well declined rapidly in production arid was finally plugged. In the Oaktown field, Knox County, a wildcat came in with a good flow of gas, extending the field to the east, and proving considerably more acreage. A new gas area was discovered in Sullivan County, and four good wells were completed. The discovery well was in sec. 35, T. 8 N., R. 10 W., and had an initial

Jan 1, 1939

By John D. Siddle

Efficient energy utilization in the electrolytic zinc process, relative to other zinc processes, is one of the reasons for its wide adoption in recent years. Designers and operators of electrolytic zinc plants have pioneered process improvements, new equipment, and operating techniques to conserve energy. As energy costs advance still higher in the future, and competitive pressure against the less efficient producers increases, these or alternative energy-saving methods will be looked upon as a necessity for economic survival. Estimated energy savings which may be achieved by various equipment and techniques are included.

Jan 1, 1977

By Don Masson

MUCH has been written and many prophecies made on the subject of plastics as a replacement for metal, and the extent to which these materials will compete with each other for peace- time markets. (Metal is used in a broad sense to include all types.) But although certain synthetic resin materials have made considerable headway in war production, this change to plastics can hardly be regarded as a serious threat to the mining and metallurgical industries. Even today, the total yearly tonnage of plastic materials is approximately only 1 per cent of that of steel, and only a small fraction of this might be considered as actually replacing steel. However, these figures must not be taken as indicating that the importance of plastics in fields hitherto considered exclusively the territory of metals is negligible-far from it. Considering the comparatively minute tonnage of plastics now being produced in comparison to the output of metals, the number of applications where plastics have augmented or aided the sale of metals is considerable.

Jan 1, 1944