Search Documents

By Hugh D. Pallister, Richard W. Smith

The Alabama flake-graphite industry has flourished only in times of war when importations of foreign graphite for crucible use have been greatly curtailed or cut off. World War I was a boom period and in 1918 some 30 plants produced 7,795,475 Ib. of flake graphite. The industry languished following the war and no graphite was produced from 1929 to 1939. The Federal Bureau of Mines began investigating the Alabama graphite deposits in 1940 and worked out modern recovery methods that were applied to production during part of World War 11. A prospecting program disclosed reserves of over 25 million tons of graphtic schists. In 1942 the War Production Board authorized the enlargement of the only plant then producing flake graphite and the construction of two new plants. Production of flake graphite from these three plants in 1943 is estimated at 8,100,000 lb. Increased imports from Madagascar late in 1943 shut down one of the new plants and curtailed production at the other. Alabama flake graphite has not yet been able to compete with Madagascar graphite for use in the manufacture of any but small graphite crucibles. The future of the industry must depend on meeting the higher carbon content demanded for other uses. Introduction The flake-graphite deposits of Alabama are confined to a narrow belt extending for about 60 miles southwest from the northeast corner of Clay County across Coosa County to the edge of the Coastal Plain in Chilton County (Fig. I). The continuity of the beds is broken by a 10-mile gap between Millerville in Clay County and Goodwater in Coosa County. The Clay County beds extend about 27 miles northwest of this gap, with a width of 3 to 4 miles near Millerville and of less than a mile at the northeast end. The Coosa-Chilton are? is about 33 miles long with a fairly consistent width of 2 to 3 miles. Geologically the graphite belt lies near the northeast boundary of the outcrop of metamorphic rocks of the Ashland series, a complex group of intensely folded and faulted beds of pre-Cambrian age composed mostly of quartz-mica schist, in which the mica is predominantly muscovite; garnet-mica schist, in which biotite is more common; and hornblende schist. Flake graphite is found in commercial quantities only in the quartz-mica schist. The best graphite, both in quantity and quality, is found in schist cut by numerous small pegmatite stringers along the planes of the schistosity. The pegmatites themselves contain little graphite, but the adjacent country rock is normally rich. . The schist was derived through the recrystallization of shale during the intrusion of the pegmatites, the graphite being derived from amorphous carbon in the shale. The intrusion of the pegmatites, and therefore the size and quantity .of the graphite flakes, seems to have a structural control.

Jan 1, 1948

By Carel Robinson

MECHANIZATION of coal mine, is radically changing the requirements for under-ground transportation. It has increased materially the need for reliability and belt conveyors are the most dependable means of moving coal away from the place where it is mined. Their record of freedom from delays is almost 100 per cent. Why then are- not belt conveyors in more general use. Part of the answer lies in the pour records made at some of the earlier installations, and in the fact that belts have so long been identified as a type of equipment suitable, in the main, only to thin seams. Another reason is lack of knowledge of the full potentialities of belt transportation.

Jan 1, 1941

By Theodore Marvin

NOW that real progress is being made in building airplanes that can stand up under adverse conditions in isolated parts of the world, utilization of aviation by mining and petroleum companies is proceeding rapidly. This isolation, offering such handicaps to ordinary methods of transportation, also was the thorn in the flesh of aviation until the recent advances in plane and englue design. The accompanying illustration shows one of the six new planes just delivered to the U. S. Government for map making. The planes will be used in Department of Commerce, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Navy Hydrographic, and Insular work. There is a trap door in the bottom of the hull for a Fairchild camera which takes five pictures-vertical, N60°, E60°, S60°, and W60°-at regular intervals. It is manufactured by the Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corp., Farmingdale, N. Y.

Jan 1, 1935

By R. G. Aspden

The cold rolling and annealing textures were studied for 3 pct Si-Fe grains initially (001) [hkl]. A concentration of (001) [loo] primaries were observed only in the annealing textures of crystals initially having [loo] within 8 deg of the rolling direction. Eke annealing textures of the (001) [I101 cold rolling textures were sensitive to the initial orientation of the grains. Single crystal data were used to explain the formation of (001) [loo] in poly-crystalline malerial. CUBE texture formation in 3 pet Si-Fe sheet occurs during the final high temperature anneal. Its formation is dependent on the proper distribution of (001) plane primaries with reference to the rolling direction&apos; and on the growth of these primaries by secondary recrystallization. The selective driving force for these primaries with (001) within 7 deg of rolling plane is derived from the difference in surface energy between the annealing atmosphere and the crystallographic planes exposed at the surface of the sheet.&apos;-= The alignment of [loo] directions of (001) secondaries with the rolling direction is required for optimum magnetic characteristics7 and is dependent on processing.&apos; A high degree of alignment has been observed when the final cold rolled texture has a strong (111) [ll2] type component3 and the normal grain growth texture prior to secondary recrystallization has components with a [loo] parallel to the rolling direction and planes from (001) to (110) parallel to the rolling plane.1,3,8,9 Generally, this (001) component is much weaker than the (110) component. The growth rate of (001) plane primaries to secondaries has been found to be independent of the orientation of the primaries with reference to the rolling direction, i.e., the secondaries have the same degree of alignment of [loo] directions with the rolling direction as the (001) primaries.&apos; Hence, the rolling and annealing textures of individual grains or single crystals are of interest in understanding the development of the (001) [loo] secondary recrystallization texture. (001) components have been observed in the annealing textures of cold rolled grains initially having a [loo] parallel to the rolling direction and an (001) rotated up to 30 deg from the rolling plane. Crystals initially near the (001) [loo] orientation when rolled under the influence of constraints imposed by neighboring grains form deformation bands and ro- tate in both directions toward (001) <110>.10,11 Deformation bands have been reported also for crystals initially with an (001) within 1 deg of the rolling plane and a [loo] within 1 deg of the rolling direction when rolled as a free single crystal.12 These crystals have weak recrystallization textures and contain near an (001) [loo] component.10-12 When near (001) [loo] crystals are rolled as free single crystals no deformation bands form and the crystals rotate by a single rotation toward (001) [110]. Recrystallization after a 70 pct cold reduction yielded near an (001) [loo] component13 and after a 90 pct cold reduction an (001) [I201 component." Crystals initially near (210) [001] had a texture after a reduction of 70 and 84 pct which was similar to the (111) [li2] but rotated 10 to 15 deg in the transverse direction. These crystals recrystallize to (210) [OOl] or (410) [001] and contain an (001) [loo] component.10,13 An (001) component has not been detected in the normal grain growth textures of other single crystals. Crystals initially having orientations between (110) [001] and (111) [ll2] have a cold rolled texture of principally (111) [ll2] .10>16 Other crystals with a [I101 parallel to the cross direction rotate to (111) [112] and/or (001) [110] stable end orientations. Crystals initially having from (001) [110] to (111) [lie] retain this orientation after cold rolling.15 The cold rolled textures having [I101 directions parallel to the rolling direction had components in the annealing textures related to the deformation textures by 25 to 30 deg rotations about common (1 10) poles. Cold rolled textures of the (111) (112) type recrys-tallized to (120) [001] or (110) [00l]. The purpose of the present work was to further the understanding of the alignment of [loo] directions of (001) secondaries with the rolling direction. The cold rolling and annealing textures of grains initially (001) [hkl] were studied. These data were applied to the formation of (001) [loo] by secondary recrystallization. PROCEDURES AND EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES The (001) poles near the sheet normal and rolling direction are given in Fig. 1 for the 10 grains studied. Each of these grains was located in the center of a polycrystalline specimen approximately 25 mm wide and 50 mm long. The lower case lettered grains, a through dl were about 1.2 mm in diam and near the (001) [loo] orientation. Specimens containing these grains were from a commercial 3 pct Si-Fe alloy with the principle orientation of (110) [001] as obtained by impurity inhibition of growth with manganese sulfide inclusions.17,18 Upper case lettered grains, A through F, were about 6 mm in diam and had (001) planes near the rolling plane and [hkl] di-

Jan 1, 1963

By W. H. Bassett

BERYLLIUM was discovered in 1798 by Vauquelin and the metal was first produced by Wohler in 1828 about a year later than his production of metallic aluminum. Beryllium remained dormant until about 1920 when the production of the metal by the electrolysis of a molten bath was carried out by Stock in Germany, closely followed by Dickinson in the United States and by Vivian in England. This may not have been the first time the electrolytic method was thus used but was the beginning of present-day methods. I believe the first commercial attempts in this country started with the Kemet Laboratories about 1924. Siemens & Halske in Germany were working on the same problem at about the same time. The work of the Kemet Laboratories was transferred to the Beryllium Company of America and later to the Beryllium Development Corporation. In 1926 1 made a considerable study of the beryllium¬copper alloys, using beryllium purchased from the Beryllium Company of America, and read a paper on this subject at the February, 1927, meeting of the A.I.M.E. However, I failed at that time to discover the properties of precipitation hardening which such alloys have in a very marked degree. After this publication the work on beryllium-copper alloys rested awhile. One cause for this was the difficulty of securing a supply of beryllium-at least at what might be considered a reasonable price. In 1926 the price was $200 per lb., a figure which held about the same both in this country and in Germany until the beginning of 1932, when it was offered here at $50 per lb. if taken in the form of a copper alloy which carried about 121/2 per cent beryllium. Somewhat later the 121/2 per cent alloy dropped to $25 per lb. of beryllium contained, which is the present price. Promise is made that with a greater consumption, production on a larger scale warrants a reduction in price to $10 per pound or less.

Jan 1, 1933

By W. G. Pfann

THE problem of forming points on wires that were from 0.002 in. to 0.010 in. in diam arose in the recent appearance of silicon and germanium point contact rectifiers as elements in microwave radar.1 In these devices a pointed tungsten wire makes a delicate contact with the surface of a semiconductor. Because the quality of such rectifiers is largely determined by the nature of this contact, considerable attention has been given to the formation of the metal point. Reproducibility of contour and freedom from burrs and even microscopic irregularities are considered essential. The operations involved must be simple and rapid enough for mass production. Previously tungsten wires had been provided with conical points by a grinding method which involved rotating a wire about its axis and causing it to bear at an oblique angle against a spinning abrasive disc. This was later complemented with an electrolytic polishing treatment which removed irregularities from the ground point and also rounded it off at the tip-a desirable feature. Finally, these operations were supplanted by the electrolytic pointing method described here. MECHANISM OF POINT FORMATION The wires to be pointed are partially immersed- in an electrolyte in a .vertical position whereupon they are provided with smooth rounded points entirely by electrochemical action. The process is independent of the depths to which the wires penetrate the electrolyte because the points are formed at the surface level. It may be used to point a single wire or many of them simultaneously and is applicable to wires of different diameters within a limited range. Solution of the immersed portion of a tungsten wire is accomplished by making it the positive electrode in an electrolytic cell, as shown in Fig I. While the wire is maintained at constant voltage the current through the cell falls continuously, principally because of the decrease in wetted area which results from solution of the tungsten. This increase in resistance occurs in a reproducible manner and is used as a control in the process. As the immersed portion of the wire dissolves, it remains cylindrical in shape except for the short section which is wetted by the meniscus. Here the rate of solution is lower and decreases as the top of the meniscus is approached. The result is the formation of a tapered section inside the meniscus. As solution continues, the cylindrical section either dissolves entirely or drops off just before complete solution, leaving only the taper which is now sharply pointed. Further action causes this point to become rounded and then quite blunt, until finally the end of the wire is almost plane. Fig 2 shows the stages in this development. Contour PF is most representative of those used in point contact rectifiers. Thus a variety of point

Jan 1, 1947

By W. G. Pfann

The problem of forming points on wires that were from 0.002 in. to 0.010 in. in diam arose in the recent appearance of silicon and germanium point contact rectifiers as elements in microwave radar.&apos; In these devices a pointed tungsten wire makes a delicate contact with the surface of a semiconductor. Because the quality of such rectifiers is largely determined by the nature of this contact, considerable attention has been given to the formation of the metal point. Reproducibility of contour and freedom from burrs and even microscopic irregularities are considered essential. The operations involved must be simple and rapid enough for mass production. Previously tungsten wircs had been provided with conical points by a grinding method which involved rotating a wire about its axis and causing it to bear at an oblique angle against a spinning abrasive disc. This was later complemented with an electrolytic polishing treatment which removed irregularities from the ground point and also rounded it off at the tip—a desirable feature. Finally, these operations were supplanted by the electrolytic pointing method described here. Mechanism of Point Formation The wires to be pointed are partially immersed in an electrolyte in a vertical position whereupon they are provided with smooth rounded points entirely by electrochemical action. The process is independent of the depths to which the wires penetrate the electrolyte because the points are formed at the surface level. It may be used to point a single wire or many of them simultaneously and is applicable to wires of different diameters within a limited range. Solution of the immersed portion of a tungsten wire is accomplished by making it the positive electrode in an electrolytic cell, as shown in Fig I. While the wire is maintained at constant voltage the current through the cell falls continuously, principally because of the decrease in wetted area which results from solution of the tungsten. This increase in resistance occurs in a reproducible manner and is used as a control in the process. As thc immersed portion of the wire dissolves, it remains cylindrical in shape except for the short section which is wetted by the meniscus. Here the rate of solution is lower and decreases as the top of the meniscus is approached. The result is the formation of a tapered section inside the meniscus. As solution continues, the cylindrical section either dissolves entirely or drops off just before complete solution, leaving only the taper which is now sharply pointed. Further action causes this point to become rounded and then quite blunt, until finally the end of the wire is almost plane. Fig 2 shows the stages in this development. Contour PF is most representative of those used in point contact rectifiers. Thus a variety of point

Jan 1, 1949

By K. Harms, T. D. Jones

TO unload large tonnages of lead bullion cast in 100-lb. bars is a problem which has confronted the lead refineries for many years. The bars, on arrival, must be restacked for unloading by truck or hand-charged to charging machines. Selected crews of labor, capable of working at sustained speeds for five- or six-hour periods, are required for this exhausting task. Due to the fatigue involved crew personnel changes rapidly. During the war it became increasingly difficult to maintain crews, especially in critical labor areas, so that the development of casting and shipping ten-ton lead blocks from the smelters to the refineries became a must in our operating program. For many years lead refineries, when making interdepartment or intradepartment transfers, have cast lead blocks weighing five or ten tons which are easily handled by crane by merely attaching the crane hook to a steel anchor embedded in the frozen lead blocks. In previous years, the practice was to use regular smelter slag pots which, due to their rounded shape, produced what were called "buttons" by the refinery personnel. The button-type blocks were unsafe as they rolled and tipped easily and were unsatisfactory for stacking since no piling pattern could be followed. To remedy this situation, flat-bottom molds came into general use and later the bottoms were made concave to prevent slipping.

Jan 1, 1946

By C. W. Parmalee

The ideal fuel for burning ceramic wares is the one that, among other characteristics, has little or no sulfur. For that reason wood was long considered the most desirable fuel but its high cost has practically eliminated its use except in regions where it is very abundant or other circumstances warrant its choice. The fuels commonly employed are natural and producer gas, oil, and coal. The last named is undoubtedly the most important, not only in this country but abroad. Occasionally anthracite is used but the larger part is bituminous. The quality of the coal used depends on the kind and the value of the products being manufactured. For some materials, such as common brick, hollow block, etc., the quality of the coal is of less importance than in the manufacture of polychrome terra cotta, pottery, porcelain, etc. It is obvious that in burning clays that contain notable amounts of pyrite, marcasite or gypsum, as is the case with many common clays, the sulfur content of the fuel is of much less importance. The permissible amount of sulfur in the coal used will depend on the kind of product being manufactured. "A good sample1 of coal commonly used in pottery ovens has something like this quantity of sulfur: total sulfur, 1.20 per cent.; sulfur in ash, 0.11 per cent.; volatile sulfur, 1.09 per cent." This is based on English pottery practice. Correspondence with a. number of leading manufacturers in this country has produced the following figures: Sanitary Ware.—(a) 1.0 per cent, maximum, (b) 0.5 per cent. Sewer Pipe.—(a) 1.2 per cent., (b) 1.1 per cent, present run, 3.0 per cent, has been used. Terra Cotta.—(a) 0.5 per cent, basis of contract, 1.0 per cent, approximate. Pottery.—1.0 per cent, contract, 1.5 per cent, probable content. Enameled Brick.—1.3 per cent, maximum, (a) and (6) designate different firms giving figures. Since a pottery kiln for sanitary ware will require about 14 tons of coal for a bum, the quantity of SO2 that will be generated from a 1-per

Jan 1, 1920

Jan 1, 1953

By W. R. Ingalls

IF, in this study of the outlook for the copper industry of the United states, I find myself assuming to be prophetic in some respects I shall express myself with hesitation and with the foresight that after the end of the war with Germany the war with Japan may continue; anyway there is sure to be an uneasy period before copper and the other metals begin to flow smoothly through the natural channels of consumption. It is mainly my purpose to survey conditions and suggest some probabilities, or possibilities, rather than to prophesy. In interpreting them it will be necessary to make certain aasurnptions, among which will be (1) expectation of a rise in the general price level,, which so far has been one-sided; (2) continuance of the k. tariff on copper imports; and (3) lock-up of government-owned copper as a military re- serve. Of these assumptions the first is indicated by the lessons from economic history, and by current symptoms. The second and third depend upon political action by Congress.

Jan 1, 1944

By H. S. Kalish, F. J. Dunkerley

Introduction and Previous Work THE determination of the low temperature tensile properties of tin and tin-lead alloys was initiated as part of an extensive research program on the phasial equilibria of tin binary systems below 13.2°C and the property changes associated therewith. A survey of the literature revealed that, although some room temperature tensile data were available for tin and a few tin-lead alloys, there existed no survey report of the low tcmPerature tensile properties of these alloys. Accordingly, the tensile data for tin and a series of pure tin alloys containing from 0.01 to 50 pet lead were measured at eleven temperatures horn — 196 to +20°C and are presented here in survey form. In addition to the importance of these tensile data as a preliminary to certain fundamental research, this information promises also to be of commercial importance because of the extensive use now being made of tin-lead solders in refrigeration and gas liquefaction equipment. Occasional failures of the solders in low temperature service have been attributed by some metallurgists to low temperature embrittlement, while others hold that failure results from the transformation of the tin-rich phase of the solder from the solid white (beta) to the powdered gray (alpha) form. From the data previously available in the literature, neither of these explanations can be completely corroborated. cohen and van Lieshout have estab-lished the beta to alpha tin transformation at 13,2°C and have shown that strain accelerates the transformation. Further, they showed that although I pct lead retarded the transformation, it was not eliminated. It will be pertinent, then, to note whether the beta to alpha transformation of the tin.rich phase will occur in a short-time tensile &apos;test. polanyi and schmid2 studied the tensile properties of tin single crystals at — 185°~ and report that tin is britlle at this tem-perature. In 1946, Kostenets3 reported that pure tin was brittle at —Ig6 and — 253°~, while lead remained ductile at both these temperatures. He also studied the tensile properties of tin-lead alloys containing from 10 to 75 pet lead at —253, —196 and + I~OC. The ultimate tensile strength increased more than two times in going from room temperature to — I96°C and about three times that value on further cooling to — 253 C- All the alloys were brittle at — 196&apos;C except those containing more than 75 pct lead. Even at — 253&apos;C, the 75 pct lead alloy retained 36 pet elongation in a 30 mm-ga. length. Creep is also an important phenomenon

Jan 1, 1949

By AIME AIME

THE second meeting of &apos;the Open-Hearth Committee, &apos;sub-division of the Iron and Steel Committee of this Institute, was held at the Hotel Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio; on Oct. 13-15. On Oct: 12, the Open-Hearth Superintendents visited the plants of the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. and. the Republic Iron and Steel Co. These men were courteously entertailled by the two companies and every facility for a thorough inspection was furnished. Luncheon was severed at the plant bf the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. The meeting was opened Tuesday morning with addresses by J. V. W. Reynders, President of the Institute, and Herbert M. Boylston, Chairman of the Ohio Section of the Institute. E. A. Whitworth, of the Gathmann Engineering Co., presided at the meeting and L. B. Lindeinuth was secretary.

Jan 1, 1925

By Robert Leach

THIS paper gives a brief summary of the process of manufacture of sterling silver, and some of its more important physical properties, as observed in commercial production of rolled sheet and wire. Although papers have been published by Turner and Smith,1 Rose,2 Sperry3 and Jordan,4 there are few technical data available, and unfortunately the time allowed for the preparation of this paper has not been sufficient to make it as comprehensive as the title might indicate. ANALYSIS OF STERLING SILVER Fine or pure silver is too soft for coinage and the manufacture of articles in which strength and resistance to wear are desired. From the earliest times of which we have record, copper has been the metal generally used to harden silver. Analyses of coins and silver articles from ancient tombs show varying amounts of copper, and old Roman silver objects in the British Museum have approximately the same analysis as our sterling. The first authentic record of the establishment of a standard alloy is during the reign of Henry II in England. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the people in the Eastern Provinces of Germany had a reputation for the standard and purity of their silver coinage, and it is said that Henry II employed some of these Easterlings, as they were called, to improve and standardize the English coinage, which had become debased. The peculiar standard adopted is probably accounted for by the system of weights used. A troy pound contains

Jan 1, 1928

By C. K. Eilerts

Finite difference equations were programmed and used to integrate the second-order, second-degree, partial differential equation with variable coefficients that represents the transient linear flow of gas-condensate fluids. Effect was given to the change with pressure of the compressibility factor, the viscosity, and the effective permeability and to change of the absolute permeability with distance. Integrations used as illustrations include recovery of fluid from a reservoir at a constant production rate followed by recovery at a declining rate calculated to maintain a constant pressure at the producing boundary. The time required to attain such a limiting pressure and the fraction of the reserve recovered in that time vary markedly with properties of the fluid represented by the coefficients. Fluid also is returned to the reservoir at a constant rate, until initial formation pressure is attained at the input boundary, and then at a calculated rate that will maintain but not exceed the limiting pressure. The computing programs were used to calculate the results that would be obtained in a series of back-pressure tests made at selected intervals of reservoir depletion. If effect is given to the variations in properties of the fluid that actually occur, then a series of back- pressure curves — one for each stage of reserve depletion — is required to indicate open-flow capacity and related flow characteristics dependably. The isochronal performnce method for determining flow characteristics of a well was simulated by computation. INTRODUCTION The back-pressure test procedurel is based on a derivation of the equation for steady-state radial flow of a gas, the properties of which are of necessity assumed to remain unchanged in applying the test results. The properties of most natural gases being recovered from reservoirs change as the reserve is depleted and pressures decline, and the results of an early back-pressure test may not be dependable for estimating the future delivery capacity of a well. The compressibility factor of a fluid under an initial pressure of 10,000 psia can change 45 per cent and the viscosity can change 70 per cent during the productive life of the reservoir. There are indications that the effective permeability to the flowing fluid can become 50 per cent of the original absolute permeability before enough liquid collects in the structure about a well as pressure declines to permit flow of liquid into the well. The advent of programmed electronic computing made practicable the integration of nonlinear, second-order, partial differentia1 equations2.3 pertaining to flow in reservoirs. Aronofsky and Porter4 represented the compressibility factor and the viscosity by a linear relationship, and integrated the equation for radial flow of gas for pressures up to 1,200 psi. Bruce, Peaceman, Rachford and Rice5 integrated the partial differential equations for both linear and radial unsteady-state flow of ideal gas in porous media. Their published results were a substantial guide in this study of integration of the partial differential equation of linear flow with coefficients of the equation variable. The computing program was developed to treat effective permeability as being both distance-dependent and pressure-dependent. In this study all examples of effective permeability are assumptions designed primarily to aid in developing programs for giving effect to this and other variable coefficients. The accumulation of data for expressing the pressure dependency of the effective permeability is the objective of a concurrent investigation. FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF FLOW Linear transient fluid flow is represented by the partial differential equation,

Jan 1, 1965

By Robert W. Hunt

(Cleveland meeting, October, 1912.) PERHAPS of all the scientific economic questions which have been claiming the attention of capitalists, metallurgists, manu-facturers, directors of public utilities, and the general public of America, during the last few years, none have been of more importance than the one relating to the wear and safety of steel rails. The discovery of the Bessemer process made possible modern railway development. In that growth, as has generally happened in all progressive movements, ill its department have not remained equally balanced. Iron rails permitted the construction of roadways for the passage of power-driven vehicles. In time the speed and weight of such carriages proved too much for the wearing-qualities of the rails, and the limit of railway capacity seemed to have been reached. Bessemer made his invention, which was soon perfected and developed, especially as related to steel rails, and thereby increased the limit of capacity, acid vastly greater railway progress was, made possible. The Siemens-Martin open-hearth process followed, and was later supplemented by the Thomas-Gilchrist basic improvement. For a time the Bessemer steel rails of commerce Were, more than equal to all that was asked of them, but this did not long continue, as evidenced by the records in our Transactions. Revolutionary changes occurred in the industrial world, and in no part of it more than in steel-rail manufacture. Great and powerful commercial combinations were made, whose financial resources made possible the supplanting of the then most efficient blast-furnaces, steel-works, mid mills, by others of theretofore unimagined capacity. Old traditions and practices of steel-making were wiped away, and, in too many cases, output was apparently the chief aim, with the result that much dissatisfaction with the wear and safety of rails was felt by railway officials, and the general public was concerned as to its safety when traveling. The climatic conditions of the winter

Dec 1, 1912

By C. C. CONCANNON

POTASH is an essential. It is necessary as an ingredient in fertilizers or as a plant food, and certainly one of the great problems, and one of increasing gravity, is the maintenance of agricultural fertility that we may have adequate food supplies. When one thinks of potash one thinks of Germany. The first and most important deposits of soluble potash salts were found in Germany, and it was through Ger- man research and the application of a highly developed knowledge of chemistry that the value of these deposits was recognized and appreciated in the field of agricultural fertilization. The Germans knew that they had something of great value in their potash resources, not only because of the advantage derived from the extensive use of it in their own intensive farming operations at home, but also because of the pressing need for it on the part of other countries. Appreciating the economic value of this in international trade, they fostered the industry to the fullest extent and devoted much attention to well organized propaganda designed to bring out the essential need for potash of German origin throughout the world. Thus every one came to believe that potash was an essential commodity of only German origin and as such it held an extraordinary position in world trade prior to 1914.

Jan 1, 1926

By Randall L. Neal

This paper discusses the impact of taxes at the state and federal level on typical on-shore oil and gas exploration economics in the USA. Taxes considered are the windfall profits excise tax, state production (or severance) taxes, state income tax, and federal income tax. Also considered will be market prices for oil and gas in the USA. The effect of government take as a percent of revenue, on rate of return, discounted Payout, and discounted cumulative cash flow is shown on the attached tables. The conclusion drawn is that tax laws, while rarely the most important factor to be considered when drilling a well, can have significant impact on the profitability of oil and gas ventures, and should be considered when determining where to drill. Hypothetical exploration wells were analyzed for the impact of tax laws on project profitability. The results of this study show that when factors other than taxes are postulated to be the same (such as producing rate, capital, operating costs, and prices), cash flow can vary by as much as 68% due to the differences in the tax laws. Other significant findings for the cases studied include: (a) that discounted payout varied by as much as 1.8 years, (b) that rate of return differed by up to 67% and (c) the total tax rate as a percentage of revenue had a maximum variance of 33%.

Jan 1, 1982

By J. O. Brittain, E. P. Lautenschlager, D. A. Kiewit

Compression tests were run in the temperature range of 700° to 900°C ox 0&apos; phase NiAl intermetal-lic alloys of several grain sizes. At these temperatures the minimum strengths were observed at the stoichiometric composition. While significant increases in strength occurved in both the low-nickel (vacancy) and high-nickel (substitutional) regions, the highest strengths were found in the high-nickel region. During deformation serrated flow was sometimes observed in the low-nickel alloys. After deformation transgranular cvacking and deformation striations were observed in all compositions tested. AS part of a general investigation of the properties of NiAl inter metallic compounds, a preliminary study of the role of point defects upon plasticity was made by high-temperature compression tests on ß&apos; NiAl specimens of several grain sizes and compositions. ß&apos; NiAl is an intermetallic compound having a CsCl structure and a rather wide range of composition from A1-45 at. pct to 60 at. pct Ni.1 According to Bradley and Taylor2 and to cooper,&apos; it possesses a defect lattice in which departures from stoichiometry in the direction of decreased nickel content lead to the presence of vacant nickel sites (although Cooper&apos;s work indicates that a small amount of substitution also occurs) whereas departures on the high-nickel side lead to substitution of nickel on aluminum sites. NiAl forms congru-ently from the melt at approximately 1650°C,1 and thus has a higher melting point than either of its component elements. Up to this time, although this and other high-melting intermetallic compounds have been suggested for elevated-temperature usage,4 only the hardness4 and a few tensile-strength measurements5 have been reported for NiAl at high temperatures. In the present investigation the effects of composition upon the compressive-strength properties in a range of 700° to 900°C have been measured for NiAl of several grain sizes. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES The alloys were made as described elsewhere6 from an A1-46.8 at. pct Ni master alloy furnished by the International Nickel Co. with additions of high-purity nickel and aluminum. The charges were vacuum-induction-melted in A12O3 crucibles with small amounts of helium added to the atmosphere to suppress vaporization. They were cooled slowly from the melting temperature to achieve uniform grain size. In order to refine the as-grown grain size a special rolling technique was developed. Alloys were packed into 0.10-in. wall-type 302 stainless-steel tubes which were partially filled with magnesium oxide to prevent bonding between the alloy and the steel jacket. The ends of the tubes were closed by hot forging, and the packets were then hot-rolled. The alloys with greater than 50 at. pct Ni were rolled at 1100°C, but it was found necessary to increase the temperature to 1350° C before alloys with less than 50 at. pct Ni would roll without cracking. With these temperatures, reductions as high as 48 pct were achieved in a single pass. The rolled alloys will hereafter be referred to as "fine grained" whereas the as-grown material will be designated "coarse-grained&apos;&apos;. The compression specimens were made by cutting square cross-sectional pieces, approximately 3/16 by 3/16 by 1/2 in., with a water-cooled diamond cut-off wheel from the as-grown or the rolled alloys. Specimens were ground to their final dimensions by polishing through 3/0 grit silicon carbide papers. The final shape was a rectangular parallelepiped of square cross section having a height-to-width ratio of 3:1. Compression testing was carried out in a compression rig of our own design mounted on an In-stron Floor Model. The specimen chamber could be heated to 1000°C and was controlled within ±2°C. The compression rig was enclosed within a bell jar and was maintained at a 50 µ of mercury vacuum throughout the duration of the test. The test cham -ber was heated from room to test temperature within 15 min. Specimens were then held at the test temperature 30 min prior to testing. Previous experiments indicated that no grain growth would occur within this time. An Instron Variable Crosshead speed unit was used to adjust for small variations in specimen lengths in order to have a constant initial strain rate, €, for all specimens of a group. For the fine-grained specimens the strain rate was changed rapidly at constant temperature by a factor of 10 with the speed lever on the Instron. For a given € the compression data was analyzed in terms of true plastic strain (E) and true compressive stress (0).

Jan 1, 1965

By AIME AIME

INDUSTRIAL Pittsburgh, the center of the coal and iron and steel industry of the world, was host to the Coal Division at its Fall Meeting held there on Oct. 21 and 22 at the William Penn Hotel. The past year has witnessed remarkable progress in new methods of mining and burning of coal and many of the papers on the program discussed these developments. Nearly 100 had registered at the time of the first session on Wednesday morning and this number increased to 168 on Thursday. Owing to the large number of papers on the program, eighteen in all, it was necessary to hold group meetings on Thursday morning, with a capacity attendance at each meeting. . Chairman McAuliffe was on hand early Wednesday morning to open the meeting. George Otis Smith, representing President Lovejoy, came over from Cleveland where he attended the meetings of the Institute of Metals Division. Secretary Parsons arrived later from Cleveland and spent the whole morning with the executive committee of the Division. Doctor Smith, Secretary Parsons, and J. T. Breunich were the official representatives from Institute headquarters.

Jan 1, 1936