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By Orlando Romig

PART I-PREPARATION OP METALLIC SINGLE CRYSTALS WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO SINGLE CRYSTALS OP ZINC? As metals and alloys are composed, of, an aggregate of allotriomorphic crystals or grains, each possessing an individual orientation, the physical characteristics of a metal or an alloy are closely related to the properties of the individual crystals. The preparation and study of single metallic crystals are, therefore, matters of considerable importance. The advent of the X-ray spectrograph as a valuable metallurgical tool has magnified the importance of this subject, because the interpretation of some X-ray spectrographs is difficult unless single crystals are used in these studies. PREVIOUS WORK The first paper, as far as the writer knows, on the behavior or preparation of single crystals of metals is by Baker.1 He describes the behavior of extruded wires of sodium and potassium. These wires, when pulled in tension, instead of I showing the usual conical fracture common to most metals, had a chisel-shaped fracture when they were broken. I and II, Fig. 1, have a similar fracture. Baker checked his results by preparing single crystal wires from molten sodium and potassium and observing their properties. He prepared the wires by filling glass tubes, under oil, with the molten metal. The surfaces of the strained wires showed slip bands of remarkable clearness of which photographs are shown in his paper. He concluded that these wires were single crystals and "that the portions of the metal brought into play are cubes. Such cubes, when placed so that a plane through 'two opposite edges was parallel to the axis of the wire, would allow of lateral contraction by faces gliding over one another in one direction only and not in the direction at right angles."

Jan 1, 1927

Tourism is the second largest industry in the Tasmanian copper mining center of Queenstown, Australia, but it is not the historic mine the tourists come to see. The attraction is rather the devastation the mine has brought to the surrounding countryside which has made Queenstown literally the most colorful mining town in Australian history.

Jan 6, 1972

By J. P. Batcha, J. Robert Denny

Since 1964. Newmont Mining Corp. has been engaged in a systematic research and development of computer techniques for a variety of mine planning applications. The general objective of this effort has been twofold: first, to arrive at a viable near-optimum plan for mining a particular orebody and, second, to decrease the financial investment by reducing the man-hours required for mine planning. Three major phases in the evolution of Newmont's computer techniques for mine planning are discernible. In phase one, the computer's ability to duplicate manual drafting and contour mapping was developed. Obviously, all recognized geologic characteristics had to be included, and consequently the development of computer techniques for the proper incorporation of structure, stratigraphic trends, and other geological features was a significant aspect of phase one.

Jan 1, 1970

By WILLARD HAYES

(Glen Summit Meeting, June, 1911.) THE determination of the question whether the Mayari and Moa mining-claims of the Spanish-American Iron Co. have been rightly denounced under the third section of the law of bases rests on the findings in the following questions of fact: 1. Is the mineral an iron-ore? 2. Is the iron-ore a bog iron-ore? 3. Is the iron-ore ocher? 4. If ocher is present, can it be mined separately and independently of the iron-ore ? 1. IS THE MINERAL AN IRON-ORE? Since the material is shown by a large number of analyses to contain from 41. to 50 per cent. of metallic iron and less than 0.02 per cent. of phosphorus, and since it has been and is being actually used on a commercial scale for the production of iron and steel, it must be classed as an iron-ore. 2. IS THE IRON-ORE A BOG IRON-ORE? Bog iron-ore has certain invariable characteristics of chemical composition, physical appearance, geological relations, and origin by which it can always be recognized with certainty. In chemical composition, it is the hydrated sesquioxide of iron, limonite, or a mixture of limonite and other closely-related iron hydrates. It never contains the anhydrous oxides-hematite or magnetite; is never magnetic, and never contains either nickel, chromium, or cobalt oxides. On the other hand, it is invariably high in phosphorus-content. In physical appearance and texture it is a yellow or reddish-brown amorphous spongy material, and always contains water-worn sand-grains, silt, clay, and plant-remains. In its geological relations it is wholly independent of the rock

Mar 1, 1911

By Ashok K. Sinha

The quasi-binary systems "VFe3"—VCo,—VNi,— "VCu3"and "TiFe3"—TiCo3,—TiNi3-"TiCu3"have been studied by a combination of microscopic and X-ray methods. Of the Phases encountered, eleven had close-packed ordered layer structures. Within each system, there is an approximately linear variation of the degree of hexagonality of the stacking arrangement with electron concentration, e/a. A study of eighty -four known examples of AB3 structures in transition metal alloys indicates that at e/a = 8.65 the ordered structure of the close -packed layers changes from "triangular" (AuCu3 type) to "rectangular" (SbCu3 type). At e/a < 8.65, the slope of hexagonality us e/a line increases with the group number of the A component. An interesting series of close-packed ordered structures is known to exist at the composition AB3; however, their alloy chemistry has not yet been fully understood. Dwight and Beck1 observed a correlation between position of the components in the periodic table and the type of crystal structure of the binary AB2 structures formed by transition metals. No consistent effect due to atomic size was noted and they proposed that electron concentration* predominates in In the present paper, the AB3 structures are characterized by a symbol describing the stacking and a symbol specifying the ordered layer. The stacking symbol used was introduced by Zhdanov,7 and later used in the International Tables,8 and by Beck9 in his survey of possible layer stacking structures. Alternating positive and negative integers are used to represent the number of positive (e.g., in abcabc...) and negative (e.g., in cbacba...) stacking sequences. T denotes the triangular ordering found in close-packed planes of the AuCu3 structure and R the rectangular ordering found in close-packed planes of the SbCu3 structure, Figs. 3(a) and (b). The present structure symbols are listed in Table I alongside the prototypes, where known, and other structural characteristics of AB3 phases found in the present investigation. EXPERIMENTAL The starting materials were metals of 99.9+ purity. The alloys were prepared by arc melting under argon atmosphere using a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and water-cooled copper hearth. The total weight loss upon melting and subsequent annealing was always less than 0.5 pct and hence the alloys will be referred to by their intended (unanalyzed) compositions. The alloys were homogenized and annealed at suitable temperatures in the range 750" to 1200°C, the annealing periods varying from 3 days at 1200°C to 10 days at 750°C. The heat treatments were carried out in sealed silica capsules under argon atmosphere and with a molybdenum foil cover between the alloy and the walls of the capsule. The quenched alloys were microscopically examined and reduced to powder by crushing or filing. The powders were, whenever necessary, given a stress-relieving anneal at the original annealing temperature. X-ray powder patterns were obtained with an asymmetrical focusing camera, a Guinier-deWolff focusing camera, or a Debye-Scherrer camera. Cr, Co, or Cu radiations were used. In some cases, to ensure the minimum degree of contamination, the deeply etched specimens were mounted in the asymmetrical focusing camera to obtain an X-ray pattern. Internal silicon standards were employed for lattice parameter determinations. The intensity calculations were made by using a Fortran IV program

Jan 1, 1970

By Roy G. Mead

BECAUSE of its magnitude, and the type of occurrence, the deposit of boron minerals in the Kramer district, Kern County, California, is unlike any other in the world. Discovery of this vast deposit has brought about many changes in the borax industry, so a discussion of the geology, and the occurrence, would not be complete without a brief history of the development of the borax industry. Until the discovery of boron minerals in the desert regions of California and Nevada some seventy years ago, borax was imported from Tibet and India, principally for medicinal purposes, at almost prohibitive prices. Following the discovery of commercial deposits of boron minerals in California and Nevada, and the subsequent development of new uses for borax and boric acid, the consumption has steadily increased until today borax is used in some form or other in every household.

Jan 1, 1933

By A. B. Parsons

AN often repeated criticism of the profession of engineering is that it is as a whole it lacks solidarity. organization, co-ordination, and leadership. Significantly, the critic, are all engineers. Other members of the body politic either do not know about the absence of organization or they do not care. If engineers have no organization they have a plethora of organizations. There exist in the United State, today some 350 societies. institutes. clubs, associations, and councils of engineers and engineering technologists and this number excludes several hundred local chapters of national societies. trade associations, and local engineers&apos; clubs of purely social character- Successful engineers must be proficient in analyzing, planning, and co-ordinating. but it is generally admitted that for their profession as a whole their success in this respect has been indifferent.

Jan 1, 1943

By Vernon A. Mrak

The Powder River Basin of northeast Wyoming was the first area in the state to receive attention during the early days of uranium exploration. Although the uranium occurrences are many and widespread, most of the known ore deposits are quite small and difficult to mine. As a result of this, detailed regional exploration in the Powder River Basin has been neglected. The uranium ore deposits occur in that part of the Wasatch Formation that is of earliest Eocene age, and they are scattered over an area of about 400 square miles. All uranium ore deposits are associated with red beds or altered sandstones within the Wasatch Formation. Uranium ore was first shipped from the region in 1953. Total production through June of 1965 is 506,257 tons of uranium ore containing 1,922,527 pounds of U3O8. The average grade of ore is about 0.19 per cent U3O8. The major producing area of the Powder River Basin is the Monument Hill district where about 91 per cent of the basin's total uranium ore has been mined. The source of uranium is presumed to have been the Oligocene, Miocene, and perhaps Pliocene tuffaceous rocks that once overlay the area. Joints, fractures, and permeable beds or zones were the passageways for the migration of uraniferous waters from the overlying beds to the Eocene host rocks.

Jan 1, 1968

By E. A. Jones

THE Southeast Missouri division of the St. Joseph Lead Co. normally hauls and hoists over 5 million tons of lead ore each year. This ore is mined in the stopes and headings of 20 mines, hauled to a main line system, see above, and transported up to 6.4 miles to ore-hoisting shafts. Average haulage distance is 2.16 miles. A few years ago a distinguished mining engineer visiting this area for the first time remarked, "You do not have a mining problem; yours is a haulage problem." Its relative importance may be gaged by the fact that mine haulage represents about 25 pct of the total cost of mining ore, the most costly single underground operation. The Southeast Missouri lead belt is a mining district located about 65 miles south of St. Louis. This district is roughly 6 miles wide and 10 miles long. The ore horizon lies about 400 ft below the surface where most of the ore is mined from flat-lying beds of dolomitic limestone. This paper deals with the central part of the district, namely, that portion which contains a group of interconnected mines all in a central haulage system, serving four hoisting shafts. The two major hoisting operations are carried out at Federal No. 17 shaft and Leadwood No. 12 shaft. No. 17 accounted for about 70 pct of the ore hoisted in the district during 1950, averaging about 14,000 tons per operating day. The underground dumping and skip-pocket system at this shaft is similar to those of the other shafts except that it has two rotary dumps. The other ore-hoisting shafts have only one. It might be mentioned that waste rock is hoisted at still other shafts, hauled off, and dumped on the surface by trucks. The hoisting shafts are on a connected system of about 200 miles of underground 24-in. gage main line railroad. There is also the Bonne Terre system, with its own ore-hoisting shaft, which consists of 13.5 miles of 24-in. gage main line, located in the extreme north portion of the lead belt area. Smaller outlying mines such as Doe Run No. 12 and Hayden Creek operate on trackless or shuttle car haulage. In addition to the system of main line haulage, each contributing mine group has its own extensive system of stope or heading railroad. Trackless mining is making considerable headway in the Lead-wood and Desloge mines. Here the shovel loads into a shuttle car which in turn dumps into mine cars spotted on the main line track system. When the merits of underground haulage and surface transportation are compared, it must be remembered that in early days there were many individual

Jan 1, 1954

By C. W. Dunham

DESIGN of the structures for the Morenci Reduction Works involved many interesting problems. Naturally, the chief purpose of these structures is to house and support the equipment and other things necessary for or incidental to the conduct of production. hence most of the features of the design were developed to suit these particular conditions; however, several are so generally applicable as to warrant description.

Jan 1, 1942

By Salinger, Herbert

WITH the large amount of metallurgical re- search work now being done and the constant effort of the engineer to effect economies of operation, I think it is a safe prediction that the next few years will see a great change in the handling of mine products. The well-managed mine, with sufficient ore reserves to warrant the necessary plants, will increasingly call upon the metallurgist and chemist for the solution of its problems. Shipping sorted ore or concentrate to the nearest smelter will not be the course followed. From ore to metal, or at least to a product directly salable to the consumer, will be the practice followed. As a consequence, mine managers will be increasingly interested in metal trade problems. By metal trade I mean the buying, selling, shipping, handling, and all the practices, forms and customs that go to make up the trade.

Jan 1, 1928

By J. B. Rather

The use of sulfuric acid in refining illuminating oils antedates the beginning of the petroleum industry in America by many years. It was used as early as 1792 by Tower in refining "coal oil" in the British Isles, and by 1860 there were 53 refineries in the United States manufacturing "coal oil," most of them using sulfuric acid as a refining agent. Following the completion of the Drake well in 1859, many of the "coal oil" refiners began to use petroleum for manufacturing illuminating oil, and their methods and equipment were adapted so far as possible to this new raw material. The value of sulfuric acid in refining L&apos;coal oil" having been established, this reagent was immediately tried and found to be satisfactory in refining petroleum. Notwithstanding the tremendous advances in petroleum technology since that time, sulfuric acid remains today the most valuable and most widely used means for refining petroleum products. Early Methods of Disposal of Acid Sludge With the almost immediate expansion of the petrolrum industry came the problem of disposing of the acid sludge produced in the refining operations. While in 1859, the year of the discovery of the Drake well, a patent was granted for sludge separation and separated acid concrntration, most of the earlier refiners, and rnany of their successors, felt that separation and recovery of spent acid was uneconomical. Accordingly, many of then) disposed of the sludge in any way that seemed expedient nt the time. It was huricd in the refinery grounds, harged and tlurnped at sea, run into neighboring streams, or dumped into sewers. Some optimists carted it to open pits in the hope that it would eithcr sink into the ground or evaporate. Not so many years ago, the superintendent of nn eastern refinery, who was using the open-pit method of disposal, lost, a sludge cart, with horse attached, in such a pit. The horse was recovred almost immediately, but its availability for further use was reduced to zero by the loss of its hair.

Jan 1, 1928

By S. A. Braley

Drainage of acid mine water into surface streams of coal mining areas is one of the most serious problems of stream pollution, since there is no known method that completely prevents its forming and no economically feasible treatment after it has formed. The mine acid problem differs from other pollution hazards because acid production does not end with cessation of mining but actually becomes more evident when pumping is stopped. The acid problem in the Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, and Kentucky bituminous coal areas of the U. S. began with the first operation in 1761, and the volume of acid discharge today is largely the cumulative result of years of mining. Provided they lie above the drainage area, the oldest mines, now long abandoned, are almost without exception producing acid in the same manner as those now operating or recently abandoned.

Mar 1, 1956

By Frank Miller

THE lower cost of producing oil from naturally flowing wells compared with pro-duction costs accruing from artificial lifting methods has stimulated much research, with the joint purpose of extending the natural flowing life of wells and of increas-ing the productivity of small wells. The laboratory investigation described herein was made to determine the effect of a slotted liner on the pressure gradient in the vicinity of the wall of a flowing well. Flow restrictions caused by the liner induce energy losses between the oil-bearing for-mation and the inside of the liner, which may be reduced by improved liner design, and thereby the flow capacity of wells may be increased. These losses have been evalu-ated for rectangular slots of different sizes, and means are suggested for reducing them. The dearth of information concerning the nature of the flow of fluids from uncon-solidated sands through small openings in the walls of pipes-as represented by the flow of oil from an oil sand into a slotted liner-is acknowledged. Although the bene-fits to be realized by operators through the use of optimum liners is just beginning to be recognized generally, Coberly1 in 1937 pointed out that the functioning of screen casing is an important factor in the pro-duction of oil. From his study on the selection of size of oil strings for wells in California, Parks2 concluded, in part, that the perforated section of the oil string de-serves continued study, especially with respect to the selection of perforations. The growing use of gravel packing result-ing from certain research findings lends even more significance to the problem of selecting optimum liners, as the application of these methods usually requires slotted liners or other kinds of perforated liners. The present study was made to obtain further information for the guidance of engineers and operators in selecting slotted liners and to develop a laboratory method that may be used in analyzing possible pressure conditions surrounding most types of perforated casings used in producing oil wells, so that the present inadequate fund of knowledge on this important subject may be expanded.

Jan 1, 1940

By Joseph A. Holmes

Iv all new movements unavoidable misapprehensions arise, which should be cleared away, lest they retard the progress of the movement itself. An impression has gone abroad that the movement for conservation of resources is a new movement. No one knows better than the engineer that this is not the case. Men like Douglas and Raymond and John Fritz and Edison and McDonald, and hosts of others, have preached and practiced conservation as applied to mineral resources throughout a long and useful life-time; and, in general, the work of the engineer and the chemist, both in this and in other countries, has been along the line of continually greater efficiency in the use of all available materials. And the results already accomplished through the efforts of these experts are now saving annually many millions of dollars to the people of the United States in materials and labor. It is true, however, that the need for conservation, that is, for a wiser and more efficient use of the natural resources, has taken on a new life, and is being brought home to the people of the United States in a manner which is awakening public interest and even the public conscience. It is, therefore, both appropriate and fortunate that the engineers, the chemists, and the thinking men of all classes are availing themselves of the present impetus to the movement to emphasize anew the lessons which heretofore they have found it more difficult to impress upon the American public or even upon the captains of industry. Still another of these misapprehensions is to the effect that many of the leaders in the present movement hope to bring about conservation of resources through legislation or execu-

May 1, 1909

By J. E. Spruiell, F. H. Patterson, B. F. Shuler

The microstructures and textures developed by the working of high-purzly thermochemically deposited tungstem sheet have been inuesligated. Greater than 60 pct reduction was required to deslroy the columnar grain structure which existed in the as-deposited sheet. With increasing reductions the texture gradu-ally charged from the initial as-deposited orientation with (100) parallel to the sheet normal to a (100}(011) ideal ovienlation with some spread about the rolling direction. This texture was retained after recrystalli-zation a1 2000°C. THE processes for depositing tungsten by hydrogen reduction of tungsten hexafluoride have been under development for the past several years.1,2 The nature of the deposition process is such that the as-deposited material contains a highly oriented columnar grain structure perpendicular to the deposition substrate. This well-defined columnar structure may be useful in certain applications293 but a wrought or equiaxed structure may be desired for some components such as tubing. Knowledge of the effects of working ther-mochemically deposited (TCD) tungsten is therefore necessary in order to establish the feasibility of obtaining worked and recrystallized microstructures and textures. The details of a recently developed technique for thermochemically depositing flat, uniformly thick tungsten sheet are presented with emphasis on the effects of deformation by rolling on the microstructure and texture. Although no work has been previously reported on the rolling and the annealing textures of TCD tungsten, there have been some determinations of textures for cold-rolled tungsten foil prepared from powder-metal -lurgy billets.4-8 The general description is that of a predominantly lurgy{100}(011) texture, with some spread about the rolling direction as an axis. pugh5 reports data both for cold-rolled and for annealed foil having about 96 pct initial cold work. He observed no change in texture, except for a decrease in the spread, for annealing treatments of 30 min at temperatures up to 1800°C. On annealing at 1900°C, both the low-temperature components plus new components which were described alternately as {001}(320) plus {001)(230) or as {100}(011) ± 12 deg about the sheet normal were observed. Above 1900°C, the new orientation existed alone, and it was stable up to 2500°C, the highest temperature that Pugh investigated. THERMOCHEMICAL DEPOSITION OF TUNGSTEN SHEET High-purity tungsten sheet was reproducibly deposited on the inner walls of a molybdenum mandrel by the thermochemical reaction WFs(g) + 3H2(g) - W(s) + 6HF(g). The mandrel was heated by a five-zone tube furnace which afforded a controllable fixed-temperature profile. Sheets measuring 1+ by 12 in. have been deposited with uniform thicknesses of up to 0.145 m. As shown schematically in Fig. 1, the purified reaction gases were metered into a mixing chamber at a Hz-to-WF6 ratio of 15 and preheated to 350°C. The flow rate of the WF6 was 300 cu cm per min at stp. These gases were directed through a conical injector into the deposition chamber. Inside this chamber hydrogen reduction of the WF6 to pure tungsten metal occurred on the hot walls of the molybdenum mandrel at a total pressure of 5 Torr. Typical temperatures for the five zones in the chamber were, respectively, 565", 540", 550°, 570°, and 590°C. The hydrogen fluorlde generated from the reaction, the excess hydrogen, and some un-reacted WF6 were pumped on through the scavenger

Jan 1, 1968

By David B. Reger

New discoveries of gas in the southern counties featured the petroleum industry in West Virginia during 194;. Drilling for oil increased slightly over 1944 and a small increase of initial production resulted. Out of 28 wildcats drilled, there were 16 gas discoveries and 12 dry holes. No commercial oil was found in the 28 wells.

Jan 1, 1946

By L. J. Howell, R. C. Sommer, H. H. Kellogg

WORK described herein was undertaken with the aim of determining some of the physical-chemical properties of electrolytes suitable for the electrodeposition of pure zirconium metal. In this paper the phase diagram, vapor pressure, and activities in the melt are considered. In a companion paper,&apos; the electrolytic conductivity of some of these melts is reported. The melts studied were mixtures of NaCl and/or KC1 with ZrC1,. Chloride melts were chosen for study because 1) if the electrolyte is to be useful for industrial electrodeposition of zirconium, the chlorides will be preferred to the relatively costly bromides and iodides; 2) fluoride melts were being studied in another laboratory (Horizons Inc., Cleveland); and 3) melts containing oxygen, in any form, are unsuitable for preparation of pure zirconium, because of the great affinity of this metal for oxygen. Unlike electrodeposition from aqueous solution, the fundamental behavior of fused-salt electrolysis is poorly understood. In most cases, such basic electrochemical information as the phase diagram of the melt system, activities in the melt, conductivity, the nature of the current-carrying ions, the equilibrium electrode potentials, and the overvoltage behavior of the electrodes is unknown to the researcher who would develop a new electrodeposition process employing a fused salt. This research project was designed to supply information about some of these basic physical-chemical properties so that an intelligent choice of electrolyte for electrodeposition studies could be made. Experimental The experimental difficulties-encountered in this work result from the properties of zirconium metal and ZrC1,. ZrC1, is a solid which sublimes at 334°C. It is rapidly hydrolyzed by moist air to HC1, ZrOCl,, and ZrO,. Unusual precautions were exercised in this work to prevent hydrolysis of ZrC1, and rigidly to exclude oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon from the melts under study. These elements are known to react with and contaminate zirconium metal. All melts were studied in vacuum systems, i.e., in the presence of ZrC1, vapor only. Transfer of ZrC1, to or from the melts was accomplished entirely by vacuum sublimation. In this way, neither the melts nor the ingredients thereof were permitted to

Jan 1, 1958

By Jerome Strauss

IN his review of developments in 1943, Gilbert Seil, Chairman of this Committee on Reduction of the Ferroalloy Ores, tabulated the consumption of the alloying metals in relation to the steel production of that year. In the year just closed the approximate tonnage was of the same order, differing only to a minor degree or suffering some correction with more precise figuses available, as indicated in the following estimates: Consumption Metals in Tons Steel 92,000,000* Manganese 700,000 Silicon 200,000 Chromium 200,000 Nickel 75,000 Molybdenum 20,000 Tungsten 8,000 Vanadium 1,700 Titanium 1.600 Boron 10 `Production figure. The technologic studies instituted during 1942 and carried forward with such great vigor during 1943 continued into 1944 although in some instances were brought to a close either by completion of the specific development

Jan 1, 1945

By E. W. Enqelmann

INCREASED metal consumption throughout the world in the past three years has brought greater activity in the concentrators and mills that treat the ores.&apos; Comparatively low prices have made greater economies necessary, with a continuing search for more efficient flow sheets, equipment, processes, and reagents. Comminution GRINDING has long been too ex- pensive and even any small increment of saving has been eagerly sought. Although not recently new the use of rod mills to cover the gap between intermediate crushing and coarse grinding has made further headway. They eliminate dusting and the closed- circuit operation of fine crushers, either roll or Symons cone, and the rod-mill product is suitable for secondary mills which can be operated with smaller balls and iron liners instead of coarse balls and steel liners. The newer practice is radically different from the older application of rod mills where they at- tempted to use them instead of ball mills for fine grinders. For that purpose they were not well adapted, as they do not have sufficient grinding surface available per cubic foot of mill volume.

Jan 1, 1940