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By L. R. Verney

About 75% of the market economy countries's supply of cobalt is produced in Central Africa by Zafre and Zambia. Zafre alone accounts for more than 55% and has the resources and capacity to increase output significantly at any time so its dominant position is unlikely to be challenged in the foreseeable future. Other producers from domestic resources are Canada, Australia and South Africa; and Cuba, probably the most important producer outside of the Market Economy countries. Belgium, Norway, France, Japan and Finland produce cobalt from imported materials. While there are "cobalt ores", inMorocco, USA, Canada and the USSR, the mineralisation is complex and cobalt extraction is costly. In ZaPre and Zambia cobalt is a by-product of copper; in Canada, Australia, France, and Cuba it is a by-product of nickel; and in South Africa it is a by-product from the production of Platinum Group Metals. Thus the levels of cobalt production are inevitably related to the production of other primary metals. While some cobalt is produced by predominantly pyrometallurgical methods most of the world's cobalt is produced hydrometallurgically. The existence of large hydro-electric power plants and the mineralogy of the copper and cobalt concentrates encouraged research and development in Zafre of the recovery of copper and cobalt by electrowinning from sulfate solutions; much pioneering work was carried out, which lead to construction of the two largest copperlcobalt hydrometallurgical plants in the world, at Shituru and Luilu. Similar systems were adopted in Zambia. In Canada high pressure hydrometallurgical processes based on the sulfate system were developed and adopted in Australia, the Philippines, Finland and South Africa. Meanwhile developments in chloride hydrometallurgical extraction of nickel and cobalt lead to its use in the extraction of cobalt in Norway, France and Japan.

Jan 1, 1988

By Zhang Chuanfu

Keywords: solid solution, Ni-Co alloy powders, thermal decomposition, fibres. Synthesis of fibrous Ni-Co alloy powders was achieved by thermal decomposition of precursor of complex Ni-Co oxalates solid solutions obtained via modified coprecipitation method among intimate mixing solution of NiCl2?6H2O , CoCl2?6H2O and H2C2O4?2H2O in the presence of surfactant polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and organic solvent ethanol. Scan electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), disperse energy X-ray analyses (EDX) were used to characterize the structure features and chemical compositions of the as-prepared fibres. The influences of decomposition conditions, including temperature, time, the flow rate of N2+H2, and the heating rate, on the morphology, average size and specific surface area of the Ni-Co alloy powders were investigated. It is found that a trend of the mutual alloying of nickel and cobalt: the formation of perfect solid solution for any compositions NixCo100-x was indicated and corresponding NixCo100-x alloys with fcc phase can be obtained under the optimal conditions.

Jan 1, 2005

By Linli Wu

During the measurement of contact angle, a misty band was observed near the substrate. Hsien-Nan Ho and Shinn-Tyan Wu thought this was because the oxygen atoms on the interface migrate to the droplet surface to form an oxide band near the substrate. But from our experiments misty band appeared before the drop reach to the substrate. Theoretically speaking, the oxygen partial was the same everywhere in the vacuum furnace. So there was no condition to provide enough oxygen forming oxide. This appearance would be explained more reasonably with the optics principle. Most reflected light would be absorbed by the substrate and the light cannot reach the observation area, so the misty band formed.

Jan 1, 2006

By C. E. M. Meskers

End-of-life Electronic and Electrical Equipment, o_cially called WEEE, is unjustly regarded as mainly a waste management problem. What is structurally overlooked is the enormous resource impact of these devices. EEE rep- resents a tremendous metal resource, which should be uti- lized through e_ective recycling, which has a much lower environmental footprint than primary production. The actual amount of end-of-life EEE recycled today is embar- rassingly low since insu_cient EEE is collected and part of the collected EEE is exported to developing countries, where it is largely not entering o_cial recycling systems. To achieve a global recycling society issues like technol- ogy, economics, life cycle structure, stakeholder aware- ness and legislation have to be addressed in a global, co-operative manner so that sustainable closed product cycles can be obtained. Requirements for a "global re- cycling society" are de_ned to address today's reality of global ows of used consumer products, taking into ac- count the likely needs of the future.

Jan 1, 2009

A three?stages countercurrent fluidized bed prototipe reactor to neutralize the SO2from smelter gases has been developed. For gases with 8 vol-%SO2, at 800°C and for 4 h mean reaction time of the limestone, the capture of SO2 is 99%, with off gases with 0.07 vol-%. For 2 vol-%SO2, the total capture of SO2 can be obtained at 750°C and 4 h reaction time. The calcine obtained contain a blend of unreacted limestone and calcium sulphatewith minor amounts of residual lime.

Jan 1, 2006

By Sadegh Firoozi

Experiments measuring the kinetics of oxidation and making visual observations of the oxidation of approximately 6 g static lead baths containing arsenic, antimony and tin were conducted in the temperature range from 500 to 600 oC. A range of repeatable behaviours were observed, notably: the formation of a coherent, solid oxide layers on pure lead and lead-tin alloys; the formation of liquid oxide droplets during the initial oxidation of lead-arsenic and lead-antimony alloys and the eventual formation of a complete oxide layer covering the entire free surface of these alloys. Thermogravimetric measurements revealed that the rate of oxygen uptake was strongly influenced by the form of oxides being generated at the melt/gas interface. Compared to the rates of oxidation of pure lead, arsenic increased the rate of oxygen uptake throughout the temperature range via the formation of liquid oxidation products. The presence of antimony resulted in a moderate increase in the rate of oxygen uptake as compared to arsenic. Tin was effective in lowering the rate of oxidation even in the presence of arsenic because the oxidation product was always a coherent layer that acted as a physical barrier to oxygen transport to the underlying alloy.

Jan 1, 2006

The mineralogy of the platinum group metals is fairly complex, and it is therefore not surprising that the different minerals have variable responses to metallurgical processes, in particular, flotation and leaching. The PLATSOL® leach process was developed to extract simultaneously base metals, gold and platinum group metals from various materials. Extensive research has indicated that most PGM?s were amenable to the PLATSOL process, with the notable exception of cooperite PtS. Further work showed that a thermal pretreatment at 500-700ºC transformed the structure of the cooperite and similar refractory minerals (Pt,Pd)S into Pt metal and Pt-Pd alloys that responded well to the PLATSOL® process. Examples are presented of the mineralogy of PGM concentrates as produced, in the residue from the PLATSOL® leach and after thermal pretreatment.

Jan 1, 2006

By Ramona Prillhofer

Salt slag is a waste product produced by the recycling of aluminum. In most European countries (e.g. Austria, Germany) the landfill disposal of this waste is forbidden because the slag contains soluble salts and these represent a potential source of pollution to the surface and groundwater. Additionally, consisting metal and some compounds in the salt slag can react with water and resulting from this, noxious gases are generated. The recovery of useful materials from these wastes is accordingly both environmentally necessary and economically feasible. This study describes a complete recycling-process for the salt slag, which includes a leaching-cristallization-process to obtain the oxidic residue, a pyrometallurgical-step to clear the oxidic residue and finally an extensive characterization of the achieved products. Due to the increasing price of raw materials, the utilization of the oxidic residue into commercial products has been investigated and application possibilities will be discussed.

Jan 1, 2009

Gas-liquid contacting in the packed bed is a common operation in metallurgical reactors. Research has shown that, unlike wetting flow, non-wetting liquid flows in the form of discrete droplets or rivulets. Thus, modeling of the liquid phase as a continuum is in contradiction to the observations. Also, for the non-wetting case, continuum models have failed to describe liquid flow path when the liquid source is a point source. The aim of the current work is to put forward a combined Lagrangian-Eulerian approach to model the liquid and gas flow in the packed bed. Liquid is assumed discrete and modeled using a force balance approach. Gas is assumed to be interpenetrating continua and modeled using k-emodel for turbulent flow. Structured packing is assumed and x- ray imaging technique is used to visualize liquid flow lines in the bed. Simulation results for liquid flow path compared with the experiments.

Jan 1, 2006

By Nobuaki Sato

For the recovery of uranium from spent nuclear fuel, sulfide reprocessing process, which consists of voloxidation, selective sulfurization, and magnetic separation or selective dissolution steps, are proposed. In this paper selective sulfurization of rare-earth oxides in the presence of uranium oxides was studied by thermogravimetry and X-ray diffractometry. In case of the mixture with UO2, the rare earth oxides R2O3 (R=Nd, Eu, etc.) were preferentially sulfurized by CS2 formingoxysulfides and sulfides, while UO2 remained at temperatures lower than 500 °C. When R2O3was mixed with U3O8, first, the reduction of U3O8 to UO2 occurred at low temperatures followed by the sulfurization of R2O3. The separation of rare earth elements from UO2 in suspensionsolution by the use of permanent magnet was examined. The advantage of the proposed process was also discussed by compared with current process.

Jan 1, 2006

By Torben Edens

Norddeutsche Affinerie?s (NA?s) primary smelter continually increased production in the past decade. The smelter?s concentrate capacity was expanded from 500,000 in 1993 to 1,000,000 t/a dry concentrate in 2000 and the goal of the present upgrade is 1,150,000 t/a. These goals were reached without erecting new equipment in the anode area, but instead by refitting the existing plant. The life-span extension of the casting moulds was absolutely necessary to increase the casting performance from 260,000 to 450,000 t anodes per year on a single casting wheel. Different mould manufacturing processes and alloys were tested in order to find the optimal mould. In the past the moulds were cast directly, now the anode mould is milled into NA copper cakes. Accompanying measures taken were the shortening of maintenance and repair times as well as improvements in the refining furnace equipment.

Jan 1, 2005

By F. Kongoli

Viscosity is an important parameter of copper smelting and converting processes. It affects the settling of matte or metal droplets in the slag, distribution of elements etc, Despite this importance, confusion exists on the viscosity of copper smelting slags as a result of disagreements found among the measured viscosity data of several authors especially in the slags of high ferric iron content and close to magnetite precipitation. In this work a critical review of the existing data on the viscosity of copper smelting slags has been first carried out and the effect of oxygen potential on the viscosity of copper smelting slags has been clarified through a coupled quantification of viscosity and liquidus temperature. The confusion in the literature has been clarified and the importance of the relation between the viscosity and the liquidus temperature is discussed,

Jan 1, 2003

By Bowen Li

Andalusite is an excellent raw material for refractory applications due to its high aluminum oxide content and phase transformation to mullite at high temperature. Granular andalusite in particle sizes of about 1 to 2 mm was traditionally utilized for the manufacturing of refractory brick. However, if powder andalusite in micron particle size is utilized in high-alumina refractory products, reinforcement on the refractory brick can be obtained and the sintering temperature can be decreased. The phase transformation of powder andalusite plays a key role for the difference.

Jan 1, 2006

By G. R. Waters

NMR360 is developing a suite of chloride-based metals extraction processes, with the first commercial operation scheduled for commissioning late in 2018. It is critical, therefore, that with the introduction of any new technology, that the circuits do not suffer from mechanical failures which will compromise the operation. Although chloride leaching is at atmospheric pressure and relatively low temperature, the main challenge is preventing corrosion, since the high proton activity makes even a small amount of acid behaves as though it were concentrated. An additional challenge in concentrated chloride circuits is the potential for solids precipitation. In this context, therefore, correct valve selection is crucial, and NMR360 has partnered with CGIS to ensure that the Severe Service Valves (SSVs) needed will perform over and above the definitions of the Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS) of the Valve and Fittings Industry. This paper outlines what the minimum requirements are for SSVs in chloride leaching applications, drawing on five decades of industry experience from one of Canada’s leading valve experts.

By A. G. Merma

In this work, the electrocoagulation technique was studied in order to treat chemically stabilized concentrated oil-water emulsions. This study was mainly focused on the effects of operating parameters such as initial pH, current density, reaction time, electrode distance and inlet concentration on the separation of oil as measured by the chemical oxygen demand -1(COD) method. The synthetic emulsion was prepared from Shell - Talpa 30 oil (3g.L-1) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (1.0 g.L), having a Zeta potential around -70 mv at pH 8.7. The process was carried out in an electrocoagulation cell with a set of four parallel monopolar electrodes. This set consisted of two aluminum plate anodes and two 316L stainless steel plate cathodes. Kinetic curves showed that the electrocoagulation process exhibits three phases: (1) an initial phase, where the COD did not decrease because the solution had not reached the minimum amount of dissolved aluminum required to cause the break-up of the emulsion, (2) a reactive phase during which COD decreased due to possible agglomeration of the precipitates and (3) a steady-state phase where the COD did not change. The results showed that the period to reach the reactive phase decreased as the current density increased and the pH values decreased.

Jan 1, 2009

By M. Bilal Khan

Thermal stress relief by means of a typical heat treatment cycle (660oC for one hr) is compared with the one achieved through vibratory stress relief at resonant and multiple resonant frequencies for the D-406 HSLA material. Our analysis of the data is based on the microhardness profiles measured for the entire length of scales, namely, base metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and the weld bead itself. The profiles obtained using the two techniques mimic each other, for an equivalent 70% stress relief level. The data are further qualified by impact testing wherein the zone of interest is projected in the retention groove to provide impact by the pendulum striker in the Charpy mode. Higher equivalent energy absorption in the treated specimens confirms the efficacy of the vibratory method. The present work rectifies earlier anomaly where heat treatment has been reported at 310oC for the same material.

Jan 1, 2009

By W. G. Davenport

The flash furnace is used for smelting concentrate to (i) high-Cu matte and (ii) molten metallic copper. It is also used for converting solidified/crushed matte to molten metallic copper. This is flash converting. It consists (Table 20.1, Fig. 20.1) of: (a)tapping molten 65 to 72% Cu matte from a flash smelting furnace (b) granulating the molten matte to ?1/2 mm particles in a 103 m3/hour water torrent (c) crushing the granulated matte to 50 µm in a vertical roller mill (d)drying the crushed matte (e) feeding the dry particulate matte to a second flash furnace for oxidation converting to molten copper. In 2000, flash converting is being used by Kennecott Utah Copper (George, et al; 1995; Newman et al, 1998, 1999a,b). A second installation is being designed for the Chuquicamata smelter (www.outokumpu.com [October 12, 2000]), The potential uses of flash converting are: (a) as the second half of a flash smelting/flash converting coppermaking sequence (b) as a continuous converting alternative to batch submerged tuyere converting. This chapter uses our flash furnace matrix to determine the %O2-in-blast, industrial oxygen and oil requirements for converting solidified 65% and 72% Cu matte to molten copper. It then discusses choice of feed matte grade and other aspects of the process.

Jan 1, 2001

By Xuan Li

Aluminum slag is generated when aluminum metals are recycled through a smelting process in the presence of salt. There are small amounts of aluminum metals trapped in the aluminum slag. This research aims at evaluating the use of aluminum slag as an expansion agent for the production of lightweight concrete by taking advantage of the residual aluminum metals in the slag. The research identified key elements of producing lightweight concrete products through utilizing various mixture components including sodium hydroxide (NaOH), lime (CaO), cement, and gypsum. The volumetric expansion rate was investigated and the density and strength of the products were determined. The results show that aluminum slag can be utilized for the production of lightweight concrete products.

Jan 1, 2010

By Wang Zhi

High-Mg-content concentrates are usually treated in Jinchuan flash smelting Furnace. Because the viscosities of high-Mg-content slag is very high, the operation of flash smelting becomes very difficult. To solve this problem, the viscosities of the semi-synthesized FeO-MgO-Si02 slag of different compositions were measured. The results showed that when in the slag the weight percentage of MgO [m(Mgo)] is 6-10%, the ratio of the weight percentage of iron to that of Si02, m(Fe)/m(SiO2) is 1.1-1.4 and the temperatures are within 1473?1773K, the slag viscosities increased with the increase of m(Mgo) and m(Fe)/m(sio,). When m(Mgo)<6%, the smelting temperature should be controlled at I 300°C in order to to keep the smooth operation. When m(Mgo» 10%, the temperature should be kept above 1633K. When the content of MgO is higher, a lower viscosity slag ean be produced by decreasing the ratio of m(Fe)/m(sio,). The appropriate ratio of m(Fe)/m(sio,) for Jinchuan flash smelting furnace is about 1.2.

Jan 1, 2003

By J. Lui

The 15m high Inco flash furnace uptake was designed as a reaction chamber with the objective of destroying the H2S contained in the furnace off-gas by combustion with oxygen at about 1300?C. Until recently, the oxygen required for this purpose was injected through afterburners located at the bottom of the uptake. An undesirable side effect of this practice was the formation of build up accretions on the inside walls of the uptake. This buildup had a negative impact on both the furnace on line time and the control of the flash smelting process. In late 200 I, the afterburners were relocated to the roof of the uptake. As a result, about 80% of the uptake accretion buildup disappeared with obvious beneficial effects for the operation of the furnace. This paper discusses key flash smelting aspects that affect the operation of the flash furnace uptake such as the dusting rate, the formation of H2S in the freeboard of the furnace, and the impact of using coke to supply some of the heat required by the process. The mechanism of buildup formation and its dependence on uptake afterburners location are also examined. Prof. Yazawa&apos;s sulfide smelting thermodynamic relationships proved instrumental in understanding the conditions that influence the formation and the elimination ofH2S and uptake buildup.

Jan 1, 2003