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By S. J. Ojolo, B. E. Ebiobi, J. A. Kehinde

"Anaerobic digestion is being taken seriously because of increasing concerns about the environmental hazards of wastes. The production of biogas, as an alternative source of energy was investigated in a designed and fabricated 200litre biogas reactor. The digester was operated on a batch-fed basis, and the feed stock was cassava waste which is readily available in Nigerian farms. The main aim was to explore other renewable sources as a means of less dependence on fossil fuels. A total of 1.94dm3/60kg waste of biogas was produced in 40 days of hydraulic retention time (HRT) with the average yield of 0.048dm3/day. The gas burned with a bluish colour indicating presence of methane (CH4). Temperature during the period of experiment varied between 27 and 330C. The pH of the slurry after the experiments averaged 3.21.1. INTRODUCTIONAnaerobic digestion and biogas production are promising means of achieving multiple environmental benefits and producing an energy carrier from renewable resources (Borjesson and Berglund, 2005).Biogas is one of the by-products of anaerobic decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms, mainly bacterial, a process referred to as anaerobic digestion.Biogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. Biogas can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digester.Biogas, also called digester gas typically refers to methane produced by the fermentation of organic matter including manure, wastewater, sludge, municipal solid waste or any other biodegradable feedstock under anaerobic conditions. The content of biogas varies with the material being decomposed, and the environmental conditions involved. The gas generally composes of methane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, hydrogen, and hydrogen sulphide (Anunputtikul and Rodtong, 2004). Potentially, all organic waste materials contain adequate quantities of the materials essential for the growth and metabolism of the anaerobic bacterial in biogas production."

Jan 1, 2008

By Larry Southwick

This paper covers technical and other developments during the first 20 years of Peirce-Smith converting. There were numerous mechanical and process ideas and concepts already being developed and used by others that had possible application within the converter that Peirce and Smith were moving ahead with. There were also other converter configurations in which the basic lining and larger size concepts could function. Finally, as awards and honors began to accumulate, there were those who felt that contributions of other early workers were being ignored. The working out of these conflicts and differing directions will be described.

Jan 1, 2009

By Gerardo R. Alvear

The ability to efficiently remove impurities contained in concentrates is a key point to consider when selecting copper smelting technology for new plants or modernisation projects. Volatilisation of impurities such As and Sb should occur as early as possible in the process, and preferably in the smelting furnace, so that they do not impact on downstream unit operations. The ISASMELTTM process has been demonstrated to remove impurities efficiently, through high levels of volatilisation. This behaviour is promoted by attributes of the process such as the strong bath agitation, and the flexible nature of the process design, allowing the operator to choose the optimal matte grade for impurity partitioning, and the positive effect of the moisture content in the feed. This paper presents the distribution of minor elements in the copper ISASMELTTM furnace. Distribution impurities of As, Sb, Pb, Zn and Co observed in the ISASMELTTM furnace at Mount Isa Smelter are reported. Then, based on plant results and thermodynamic considerations, the potential application of ISASMELTTM technology for processing complex concentrates is discussed.

Jan 1, 2006

By D. J. Wang

Based on the thermodynamic arid kinectic aspects, the vaccum distillation processes for the separation and recovery of metals from wastes are analyzed. As to the separation criteria, The separation coefficient and equilibrium composition relation between vapor phase and liquid phase are the bases of recovery of metals by vacuum distillation, The vaporization rates and condensation mechanisms are also discussed. Some experimental results which deal with metals-containing wastes are described and the performances of a new kind of horizontal vacuum furnace are introduced, which demonstrate that , vacuum distillation may be a prospective technique for circulation and regeneration of some non-ferrous metals from industrial wastes.

Jan 1, 1996

By Suman Das, Justin J. Gambone, Rohan Bansal, Ranadip Acharya

"This paper focuses on modeling of the scanning laser epitaxy (SLE) process that is currently being investigated and developed at the Georgia Institute of Technology. SLE is a laser-based manufacturing process for the creation of equiaxed, directionally solidified and single-crystal deposits of nickel superalloys onto superalloy substrates through melting and resolidifícation of alloy powders using a scanning laser beam. The thermal modeling of the system, done in a commercial CFD software package, simulates a heat source moving over a powder bed and dynamically adjusts the property values for consolidating CMSX-4 nickel superalloy powder. The associated melting and re-solidification process is modeled using an immediate consolidation approach, and the predicted melt depth is compared with the experimental data obtained. For a given position of the beam, geometrical parameters of the melt pool are used to estimate the resulting microstructure. The influence of the processing parameters on the microstructural evolution is also discussed. This work is sponsored by the Office of Naval Research through grants N00173-07-1-G031, N00014-10-1-0526 and N00014-11-1-0670.IntroductionIn order to increase the operating temperature of gas turbine aero engines, investment cast equiaxed turbine airfoils are now often replaced with airfoils that have either directionally solidified columnar or single crystal (SX) microstructure. Wear and damage during operation limits the lifetime of these components and necessitates the replacement of numerous airfoils within the engines. Due to the high cost of producing SX cast turbine blades, the cost of replacing each blade can be several hundred to several thousand dollars. With each engine containing several hundred blades, the cost to replace all blades can reach hundreds of thousands of dollars. Hence, it is of great interest to develop a process that can restore the single crystal microstructure at the locations of material loss and allow for the blades to be repaired and reused rather than be scrapped and replaced."

Jan 1, 2012

By M. Misra

The prediction and assessment of the reactivity of acid mine tailings has been a subject of numerous studies. The conventional approaches such as sulfur content, pH, net acid generating capacity and conductivity are used for assessing reactivity of the tailings. In this paper a new non-invasive Impedance Spectroscopy (IS) technique is used for the determination of reactivity and acid mine potential of tailings. This technique is also used to establish the long term stability and leaching propensity of the tailings agglomerated with alkaline binders.

Jan 1, 1994

By Kazuteru Tozcwa

The oxidation of several sulfide minerals in aqueous ammoniacal solution is discussed thermodynamically. The region in which Cu(NH3)2 4+ is stable has been estimated as a function of pH and concentration of total ammonia, {[NH3) + [NH4)}. In ammonia leaching when copper in sulfides is assumed to be extracted in the form of Cu(NH3)2 which will be rapidly converted to cupric ammine, thermodynamic data predict that such minerals are oxidized readily in the following order, CuS, Cu2S, CuFeS2, ZnS, NiS, Ag2S. This agrees with investigations on ammonia leaching of sulfide minerals, reported previously. The leaching of copper sulfide concentrate has been examined experimentally. Copper in a copper sulfide concentrate, in which the main constituents were chalcopyrite and pyrite, was effective¬ly extracted. The copper extraction was affected by factors such as (1) agitation intensity, (2) oxygen partial pressure, (3) NH3/Cu molar ratio, (4) leaching temperature and (5) addition of ammonium sulfate. From the results obtained in this work, it is concluded that mass transfer of oxygen plays the most important role in ammonia leaching of copper sulfide minerals.

Jan 1, 1976

By J. M. Casas

This work presents the development of an ionic equilibrium model and its use to simulate the distribution and concentration of chemical species (speciation) in sulfuric acid - cupric sulfate solutions in the 0-2 pH range, 0.1-10 gpl copper concentration range and 15-45°C temperature range. The model consists of a set of equations which represent the equilibrium relationships for the ionic reactions and the mass balances for the components present in the system. The effect of ionic strength was taken into account by correcting the equilibrium constant in concentrated solutions. Several species can be formed at different pH and temperature values, the principal being: HSO-4, SO42-, CuSO4(aq), Cu2+, and H+ in order of increasing solution acidity. Simulations show that concentrations are highly dependent on pH. The sulfuric acid speciates mainly as bisulfate ion (HS0-4) and hydrogen ion (H+) at pH values lower than 1. The model presented in this work can be applied to predict and analyze the solution composition in electrolytic copper processes such as electrowinning, electrorefining and electrodialysis, as well as the purification of various industrial solutions.

Jan 1, 1999

By Zuoren Huang

The flowsheet of the hyd.rametallurgical zinc plant which is in use at Zhuzhou Smelters is described. The principal features of the process are fluid bed roasting, continuous calcine leaching, solution purification, zinc electrolysis, electrolyte cooling, and finally, the melting and casting of zinc forms. The Zhuzhou process for the flotation of silver from the leach residue collected on the Moor filters is described. The technical details of the process are outlined and the operating data are analyzed. The flotation facilities are described in detail and concentrate grades and recoveries are presented. The waelz process is used to concentrate In, Ge and Ga remaining in the leach residue after silver flotation. These elements subsequently are recovered by selective leaching in sulphuric acid, and details of this operation also are presented.

Jan 1, 1990

By Jilai Xue, Jun Zhu, Liang Liu

"Separation removal of fluorite and calcite from scheelite is a difficult technical operation in current industrial practice with a heating process causing large energy consumption and high production costs. In this work, the floatation separation at room temperature were carried out using two types of skarn scheelite ores. The results showed that CaO and Na203 are better than NaOH as a regulator in pH value. In the rough floatation and first cleaning floatation, CaO (500g/t), Na203 (3000g/t) were used as a pH regulator, waterglass (4000g/t) was as a gangue depressant, oleic acid or sodium oleate were used as a collector. The degree of the obtained W03 concentrate was more than 65% (commercial product).IntroductionThe mainly gangue in scheelite are quartz, calcite, barite and some rare metal ores. There are three main types of scheelite for floatation: scheelite--quartz (silicate minerals) type, scheelite-calcite/ fluorite type, scheelite--calcite/fluorite/barite type. Generally speaking, scheelite--quartz type is separated easily, and others are difficult, on the contrary. The last two kinds of scheelite are always called scheelite--calcite/fluorite (barite) type, because there are similar floatation ability and floatation process between them. Scheelite, calcite and fluorite have same cation - Ca2+, it makes them have close floatation property [1]. Separation removal of fluorite and calcite from scheelite is a difficult technical operation in current industrial practice.The traditional separation method is a heating floatation process (Petrov's process) [2]. It can deal with many kinds of scheelite, and can be obtained stable quality ofW03 concentrate. On the other hand Petrov's process causes large energy consumption, high production costs and bad operational environments. Since 1980s, scheelite ambient temperature floatation has become the mainstream of study [3]. Nowadays more and more studies on scheelite floatation focus on complex reagent system [4, 5], rigid operating rules and at the same time development new regulator [1, 5]. Some research show there are new regulators can concentrate scheelite efficiently, but it may cause high costs, potential pollution and difficulty to spread. Oleic acid and sodium oleate used as collector have high adsorption capacity to scheelite, but same to calcite and fluorite[6]. So, it would not get ideal effect for separation of scheelite. In this work, the floatation separation at room temperature were carried out using two kinds of skarn scheelite ores. Calcium oxide and sodium carbonate was used as a pH value regulator, waterglass was used as a depressant and Oleic acid/sodium oleate was used as a collector. The result of experiment showed that the degree of the obtained W03 concentrate was more than 65% by one time ambient temperature roughing floatation, several times ambient temperature cleaning process."

Jan 1, 2014

By E. Gratz, U. Pal, A. Powell, S. Pati, J. Milshtein

"The solid oxide membrane (SOM) process has been used at 1150 'C to produce magnesium by direct electrolysis of its oxide. Magnesium oxide is dissolved in a molten CaF2-MgF2 ionic flux. An oxygen-ion-conducting yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) SOM membrane separates the cathode and the flux from the anode. During electrolysis, magnesium ions are reduced at the cathode and Mg(g) bubbles out of the flux into a separate condenser. The flux has a small solubility for magnesium which imparts electronic conductivity to the flux. The electronic conductivity decreases current efficiency of the process and also degrades the YSZ membrane. This study investigates different methods for reducing the electronic conductivity of the flux due to magnesium solubility. One effective method shown here is inert gas flushing near the magnesium nucleation site. Potentiodynamic and potentiostatic experiments along with AC impedance spectroscopy are used to characterize the effectiveness of the approach.IntroductionMagnesium is the third most abundant metal in the earth's crust. Since magnesium is the lightest of all metals used for construction alloys, magnesium is the leading candidate to replace steel and aluminum in automobiles. Automobile manufacturers would like to increase magnesium content from 4-5kg per vehicle to 40-IOOkg per vehicle [I]. Using magnesium alloys instead of steel and aluminum can reduce automobile weight and improve fuel efficiency. However, in order for automobile manufactures to make this change, it is generally believed that new cost effective methods of magnesium production must emerge.One approach for magnesium production which has been shown to be effective on a laboratory scale is the direct electrolysis of magnesium oxide utilizing an oxygen-ion-conducting solid oxide membrane (SOM), this is known as the SOM process [2]. A recent study estimated that a commercial SOM plant could produce magnesium from magnesium oxide at a cost that is 40% less than current technologies [3]."

Jan 1, 2012

By Norihiko Fukatsu, Takashi Iwamoto, Noriaki Kurita, Koji Katahira, Kunihiro Koide, Teruo Ohashi

"The galvanic cell-type hydrogen sensor employing CaZro.9Ino.t03-a. as the solid electrolyte was designed for the measurement of hydrogen activities in molten copper under industrial .conditions. The sensor probe consists of the cap-shaped solid electrolyte with porous platinum electrode on the inside and alumina refractory tube. The gas mixture of the composition 4%H2-0.5%02-Ar was made to flow on the inside electrode. The hydrogen sensor probe was inserted directly into molten copper and the melt was used as the outer electrode. The effect of oxygen activity gradient to EMF was eliminated theoretically by measuring the oxygen activity in the melt simultaneously with an oxygen sensor. The high stability of output and excellent response to the change of hydrogen activity were obtained over the wide range of industrial copper melting conditions.IntroductionIn the metal casting process, hydrogen easily dissolves in molten metals from water vapor in the surrounding atmosphere. Owing to the large difference in hydrogen solubility between liquid and solid metal, dissolved hydrogen becomes a cause of the defects of blowholes in castings or ingots. It is necessary to control the hydrogen content in the molten metals [l]. Using proton-conducting ceramics as a solid electrolyte, high temperature-type hydrogen sensor can be constructed [2]. SrCe03- and BaCe03-based perovskite-type oxides exhibit appreciable proton conduction under hydrogen containing atmosphere at high temperature [3-5]. A hydrogen sensor for molten aluminum using CaZro.91no.103-a. has been developed and widely used in the ·process control in the aluminum melting industry [6,7]. The same type of hydrogen sensor has also been expected in the copper melting industry. .. However, CaZro.91no.103-a shows ·not only proton but also oxide ion conduction in the high temperature and at low oxygen activies like the copper melting· conditions. Then we studied the oxide ion conduction in CaZro.91no.103-a. iit · detail [8]. From the consideration on the EMF of the galvanic cell employing this material as electrolyte, it was shown that the unknown hydrogen activity may be precisely determined from cell potential which is corrected for the effect of oxygen potential gradient And the hydrogen sensor based in this principle was constructed and tested in laboratory-scale [9,10]. We repeated the similar tests in factory-scale and developed the sensor system for practical uses [11, 12]. In this report, the structure and system of the hydrogen sensor for molten copper will be introduced first. The reliability of the sensor will then be demonstrated from the results of experiments for sensor probes carried out in TYK's laboratory."

Jan 1, 2000

By R. A. Alock

The character, occurrence and genesis of the three types of nickel deposits, sulfide, laterite and deep-sea nodule are described, highlighting the differences in mineralogy and chemical composition that effect the extractive metallurgy of nickel and associated byproducts. World nickel production and current resources by deposit type and geographic location are also reviewed.

Jan 1, 1988

By Andre L. De Vegt

For the past eight years Paques has been engaged in the development and installation of treatment systems based on biotechnological processes to remove sulfur compounds from water, air and gaseous streams. Metal and sulfate can be removed from mine waters using two biological steps: 1. Sulfate reducing bacteria convert sulfate to hydrogen sulfide (HzS). The HzS reacts with the dissolved metals to form insoluble metal sulfide precipitates. 2. Sulfide oxidizing bacteria convert excess H2S to elemental sulfur. Paques has designed and installed a groundwater treatment system for the Budelco zinc refinery in the Netherlands to remove metals and sulfate as described above. The system has been operating since May 1992 treating a flow of 5000 m3/d. A test program, utilizing a large scale pilot plant, will commence in November 1995 at a copper mine in the U.S.A. to remediate groundwater contaminated with sulfate and heavy metals. Biological reactor performance and selective metal recovery will be studied. Sulfur dioxide (S00 can be removed from fluegas using a combination of scrubber technology and the two biological steps. The end product is elemental sulfur. A commercial size biological desulfurization plant has been in operation since July 1994 treating 50,000 Nm3/h of fluegas. Sulfide can be removed from mining waters or anaerobic wetlands using a THIOPAQ® Sulfide Oxidizing reactor.

Jan 1, 1996

By T. A. Chepushtanova, B. Mishra, E. O. Kilibayev, V. A. Luganov

"The paper contains the results of studying about modification of pyrite and arsenopyrite specific surface and porosity at their thermal decomposition. The studying of specific surface was carry out by B.E.T. – adsorption of nitrogen at his boiling-point. In our work were using the electron-microscopical, X-ray structure analysis and chemical analysis. There was established that the decomposition of pyrite and arsenopyrite accompany by increasing of pores volume from 0.303 · 10-3 to 1.23 · 10-3 at increasing of pyrite degree of decomposition about 41 % and then decrease about 0.131 · 10-3 m3/g at degree of decomposition near 100 %. The surface area of pores increase from 0.31 to 1.085 m2/g with following lowering due to enlargement and confluence of minor, small pores. Increasing of porosity accompany with increasing of particles windage that appear the result of heightened dust-furnace partially decomposing pyrite and arsenopyrite particles by air flow from furnace reaction zone. This explains heightened contention of sulfide sulfur in roast dust of sulfide concentrate. 1. INTRODUCTION As a result of ore base exhaustion of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy at metallurgical treatment are involving more complicated and less qualitative ores. Magnetiting ores content considerable quantity of pyrite complicative the technology of iron extraction. At the same time the pyrite concentrates wining at dressing content different nonferrous metals in industrial quantities. Extracting ores of nonferrous metals are contenting considerable quantity of arsenic at the present time. Extraction of base metals from complicated raw materials demands new technologies. Arsenic contenting in ores is necessary to utilize (waste burial) in more ecological compatible form. Arsenic on acting metallurgical and chemical enterprises from technological cycle is withdrawing in the form of arsenate – arsenite cakes, burial of their may lead to seriously ecological problems as times goes by. In Kazakh National Technical University is carry out the cycle of researching by pyrite, arsenopyrite and arsenate – arsenite cakes treatment with the object of arsenic withdrawal in sulfide form – in more ecological and safe form and with the object of preparation of initial ore raw materials to following pyro- and hydrometallurgical treatment. As a result of sulfidizing of arsenate – arsenite cakes by pyrite are forming the volatile arsenic forms and pyrrhotite of variable structure."

Jan 1, 2008

By Olga K. Karakasi, Angeliki Moutsatsou, Ioanna Kavallari

"The present study focuses on the amelioration of the behaviour of high calcium fly ash (HCFA), investigating its application in a new environmental field: oil spill clean up. High calcium fly ash is a by-product of electric power plants, produced annually in large quantities, whose greater amount is landfilled. Some of its properties, such as its chemical and mineralogical composition, its fine particle size, its porosity, floating ability and hydrophobic character make it an attractive material for this purpose. Researches showed that when added to an oil spill, it forms a semi-solid phase, which allows the quite total removal of the oil, but it is not stably retained on the surface. In order to ameliorate its floating ability, the decrease in its specific gravity by mixing with a lighter material is investigated. In the present study the mixing with two materials, already used in oil spill clean up, sawdust and a polymer, has been examined. Addition of 15-25% w/w sawdust to HCFA results in a material with better performance than HCFA or sawdust alone: it has a satisfactory floating ability and allows total removal of oil. Addition of the polymer, however, has resulted in no significant amelioration of the oil sorption behaviour of HCFA, probably because no affinity between HCFA and polymer has been achieved.IntroductionCoal fly ash is a by-product of coal combustion in electric power plants, produced worldwide in huge quantities, approximately 500 million tones annually. High calcium fly ash (HCFA) is classified to class C presenting a (Al2O3 + SiO2 + Fe2O3) > 50%. The production of lignite fly ash in Greece comes up to 13 million tones annually, of which only 12% is used in construction applications, the other being landfilled [5, 6].Besides its limited application worldwide as a construction material, research is focusing on the development of new environmental applications, such as waste stabilisation and solidification, soil and water environmental improvement [9, 12]. For the application of fly ash in further environmental fields several chemical modifications have been applied, in order to improve its properties. Extensive research has been focused on the conversion of both coal and lignite fly ash to zeolite and its further application in environmental field, such as the uptake of inorganic (heavy metals and ammonium [8, 11]) or even organic compounds (methylene blue [15]) from waste water streams, or the use as molecular sieves, to adsorb water molecules, SO2 and NH3 from gas streams, due to the high cation exchange capacity and porosity of the produced zeolithic material. Furthermore, lignite fly ash has been combined with sodium silicate solution, prepared by treatment of rice husk ash, and tetrapropylammonium bromide, to synthesise hydrophobic zeolite ZSM-5 [4]."

Jan 1, 2008

By S. D. Prosser

The earliest record of slag in the world was the discovery of the remains of a copper blast furnace in Southern Israel, which has been carbon dated at 3500BC, nearly 6,000 years ago. Slag in Australia is a much more recent phenonenum with the first iron blast furnace commencing operations in 1848. The early days of metal smelting in Australia were marked with many company failures due to a variety of reasons. This paper traces the progress of metal and slag production from those early days up to the present times

Jan 1, 1994

By Lucas Nana Wiredu Damoah, Lifeng Zhang

"Increasing demand for Solar Grade Silicon (SoG-Si) due to rising interest in renewable energy has lead to increased SoG-Si Top – cut scraps generated from the multi-crystalline silicon making process. Due to the high cost of SoG-Si and the potential to use the top-cut scraps as feedstock material, there has been increased effort to develop cost effective and efficient technologies. As a result, several methods to recycle the top-cut scraps are currently been applied, and researched. These include settling under gravitation field, which is a slow process to be industrially applicable. Natural settling of inclusions by gravitational force is a slow process and not attractive to the industry. Recent experiments on Top-cut SoG-Si scrap under high frequency, high voltage, electromagnetic field showed that SiC inclusions settled within a short time to the bottom of the crucible and the characteristic rod-like morphologies of Si3N4 inclusions in SoG-Si were not detected. This study investigates the enhanced settling of SiC inclusions and the behavior of Si3N4 particles under the influence of high frequency, high voltage, electromagnetic field in Top-cut SoG-Si.IntroductionThe photovoltaic industry depends on silicon based PV materials either as single-crystalline silicon, or multi-crystalline Si (MC-Si), or amorphous Si [1] for over 90 % of its market share. [2] MC-Si produced by directional solidification of solar grade silicon melt dominates the silicon PV market. During the directional solidification process, SiC and Si3N4 particles within the melt are pushed by the solidification front to the top of the ingot which is the last to solidify. Therefore the top of the ingot is cut generating what is known as top-cut solar silicon scraps. The Si3N4 particles are mainly from the coating material at the inside surface of the silica crucible and from air absorption during the solidification process. The SiC particles mainly stem from the carbon reduction process of the primary production of silicon [3]. Due to the growth of the PV industry as a result of global demand for clean, reliable, and affordable energy [4], there is the need to develop new methods to compliment exiting ones to recycle SoG-Si waste (e.g. top-cut) for sustainability."

Jan 1, 2012

By V. Madhusudhan Rao

Fly ash is a finely divide non ? combustible material obtained as a by ? product of coal combustion. It is a major by ? product of coal based thermal power stations. Until recent past it was considered as a waste and highly polluting material. However its formation can only be minimized by using suitable technology in the boilers. In recent past it is found that Fly ash has many end uses and it has proven itself to be a potential construction material. But the suitability of fly ash for various applications largely depends on the amount of unburned carbon, which is turn depends on the firing method. Fly ash samples from various power plants existing in India using a fluidized bed method and pulverized bed were analyzed and a comparison of these two firing methods was carried. This paper deals with the compositional requirements for fly ash used for the fabrication of insulating doors using AAC (Aerated Autoclave Concrete) and the methods employed to make fly ash suitable for this purpose. It also includes the latest ?U? beam technology for effective fly ash recycle. If the by products of coal combustion from power plants like fly ash as the paper stresses are utilized properly, it is not an exaggeration to say that power generation is possible with absolutely zero cost.

Jan 1, 2006

Novel techniques were developed to obtain samples from and make measurements in the shaft of the flash furnace at the Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter. The data obtained was used to validate mathematical models of the burners and the reaction shaft. Particle, gas and wall temperatures were measured along with the oxygen potential of the molten particles. Collected particles were characterised by sizing, chemical analysis and optical microscopy. The region of the shaft immediately beneath the burner where the rate of change was most rapid received special attention.

Jan 1, 1993