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By Arne Landsberg

The Bureau of Mines measured the vapor pressure of FeC12 , FeBr2, FeI2, Sb, Bi, Cd, Mg, Pb, FeC13 , and VCl2 using the Knudsen-and torsion-effusion methods, and on FeC13 -NaC1 mixtures, Au2Cl6, and MgNi2 using only the Knudsen method. Apparent vapor pressures calculated from the experimental data vary with orifice size and method of determination. Reaction with residual oxygen in the instruments was noted to have an effect on the iron halide data. Vapor pressure curves plotted as log P versus 1/T (where P is pressure and T is absolute temperature) for one substance using several orifice sizes tended to converge at a single point when extrapolated beyond the experimental region. All of the data, except those of VC12, agree with previously published results. The importance of comparing effusion measurements with those obtained by other methods and the variations encountered with various orifice sizes are discussed.

Jan 1, 1977

By J. L. Viljoen

t has long been the drive of the industry and all operations to create an environment that is free of injury and illness. We have come a long way; the leaders, executives, managers, supervisors and workers are to be commended for relentlessly driving to create, what I call a ?White Flag Day Every Day?. Yet I am also aware of the huge shift we still need to create in the industry, on the operations and in the workplaces to have them free of injury and illness. Keywords People, values, care, trust, belief.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Escoffier, A. Giraud, K. Su, F. Homand, N. Hoteit

Abstract For the feasibility study of an underground waste disposal the characterization of the coupled behaviour of the host rock is required: Because of the very low permeability of these formations few experimental data are generally available. In this framework the uses of the sensitivity studies could orient the experimental efforts by highlighting the key parameters of the formation. This paper gives a first approach of the sensitivity studies performed with probabilistic methods in the geomechanical field. A one dimensional model which characterizes the thermohydromechanical response of an argillaceous rock to the excavation of a waste canister site and its setting up, is considered. Zusammenfassun Die Machbarkeitsstudie eines tiefliegenden Endlagers für radioaktive Abfälle beinhaltet die Untersuchung des gekoppelten Verhaltens des im Lagerbereich anstehenden Gesteins. Aufgrund der sehr geringen Wasserdurchlässigkeit dieser Formationen liegen häufig nur wenige experimentelle Angaben vor. Die Verwendung von Sensibilitätsstudien kann in diesem Zusammenhang als Hilfsmittel zur Entscheidungsfindung dienen. Dabei sollen die maßgeblichen Eigenschaften der Formation festgestellt werden, anhand derer der Umfang der experimentellen Erkundung festgelegt werden kann. Dieser Artikel stellt einen ersten Ansatz zur Durchführung von Sensibilitätsstudien mittels einer mechanisch-probablistischen Kopplung im Bereich der Geomechanik sowie die Vorteile gegenüber Parameterstudien vor. Zur Abbildung des thermohydromechanischen Stoffverhaltens von tonigem Fels während der Schachterstellung und der Einlagerung der Abfälle wird ein eindimensionales Model verwendet. Résumé L'étude de faisabilité d'un centre de stockage de déchets radioactifs en profondeur passe par la caractérisation du comportement couplé de la roche hôte. Du fait de la très faible perméabilité de ces formations, souvent peu de données expérimentales sont disponibles. Dans ce cadre l'utilisation d'études de sensibilité permettrait d'orienter les efforts expérimentaux en faisant ressortir les caractéristiques primordiales de la formation. Cet article présente une première approche de la réalisation d'études de sensibilités à l'aide de couplages mécano-fiabilistes dans le domaine de la géomécanique. Un model unidimensionnel caractérisant la réponse thermohydromécanique d'une roche argileuse au creusement d'un puit de stockage et à la mise en place de conteneurs de déchets est considéré.

Jan 1, 2003

By A G. Thompson, E Villaescusa, A De Zoysa, J R Player

Ground support performance is critical to the safe and economical extraction of ore. This is particularly important for mass mining extractions at great depth, which are currently being considered by a large number of mining companies worldwide. As the in situ stresses concentrate around critical excavations, failure occurs at the excavation boundaries and ground support is required for the excavations to remain safe and accessible for their intended lifespan. Ground support consists of reinforcing elements that are installed within the rock mass to modify its internal behaviour (generally to within one excavation radius) and surface support elements that are installed at the exposed boundaries to retain the failed pieces of rock. For surface support to be effective, the loadings need to be transferred to the reinforcing elements; however, the combined performance of rock bolts and mesh is poorly understood in terms of the energy dissipation capacity available for a typical ground support scheme implemented at most mass mining operations.Over the last 15 years or so, a large number of large-scale laboratory experiments have been completed at the Western Australian School of Mines (WASM) Dynamic Test Facility for reinforcement systems and surface support systems loaded separately. The objective of more recent testing has been to establish the combined energy dissipation capacity of typical and enhanced reinforcement systems combined with mesh surface support. Total energy dissipation has been separated into energy dissipation attributable to the reinforcement and to the mesh. The results of the tests are presented and compared with the existing WASM design demand and capacity guidelines.CITATION:Villaescusa, E, De Zoysa, A, Player, J R and Thompson, A G, 2016. Dynamic testing of combined rock bolt and mesh schemes, in Proceedings Seventh International Conference and Exhibition on Mass Mining (MassMin 2016), pp 789–798 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne).

May 9, 2016

The AusIMM/AMIC code for reporting Reserves seeks to improve the calibre of professional reporting on this subject. But have they gone far enough? Should the code appreciate that the degree of reliability of estimates required will vary with the type of mining planned? How does one "confirm continuity" as required by the code? The aim of optimum development drilling is to achieve appropriate ore zone definition for acceptable estimates of reserves and their economic extraction. Can this procedure be in conflict with the code? How does it affect finance decisions?

Jan 1, 1989

By Mark Van Dyke, Ted Klemetti, Joe Wickline

"The identification and mitigation of adverse geologic conditions are critical to the safety and productivity of underground coal mining operations. To anticipate and mitigate adverse geologic conditions, a formal method to evaluate geotechnical factors must be established. Each mine is unique and has its own separate approach for defining what an adverse geological condition consists of. The collection of geologic data is a first critical step to creating a geological database to map these hazards efficiently and effectively. Many considerations must be taken into account, such as lithology of immediate roof and floor strata, seam height, gas and oil wells, faults, depressions in the mine floor (water) and increases in floor elevation (gas), overburden, streams and horizontal stress directions, amongst many other factors.Once geologic data is collected, it can be refined and integrated into a database that can be used to develop maps showing the trend, orientation, and extent of the adverse geological conditions. This information, delivered in a timely manner, allows mining personnel to be proactive in mine planning and support implementations, ultimately reducing the impacts of these features. This paper covers geologic exploratory methods, data organization, and the value of collecting and interpreting geologic information in coal mines to enhance safety and production.The implementation of the methods described above have been proven effective in predicting and mitigating adverse geologic conditions in underground coal mining. Consistent re-evaluation of data collection methods, geologic interpretations, mapping procedures, and communication techniques ensures continuous improvement in the accuracy of predictions and mitigation of adverse geologic conditions. Providing a concise record of the work previously done to track geologic conditions at a mine will allow for the smoothest transition during employee turnover and transitions. With refinements and standardization of data collection methods, such as those described in this paper, along with improvement in technology, the evaluation of adverse geologic conditions will evolve and continue to improve the safety and productivity of underground coal mining."

Jan 1, 2019

By Jaeheon Lee, Junmo Ahn, Jae-Yeon Kim, Yoo-Jin Kim, Jiajia Wu, Eun-Woo Kim, Jai-Won Byeon, Jun-Jae Lee

The surge in demand for battery materials, coupled with environmental challenges linked to battery disposal, underscores the need to recycle spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Green recycling approaches, in particular, have garnered attention for battery recycling. In this study, a hydrometallurgical method using a synergetic organic lixiviant combining methanesulfonic acid (MSA) and citric acid (CA) as an alternative to inorganic mineral acids was introduced as a green approach to recycle cathode materials of LIBs. The conditions for leaching and recovery processes were optimized. Cathode materials were regenerated using the recovered materials. Moreover, the leaching performance and economic feasibility of this leaching system were compared with those of various other organic acids.

Feb 1, 2024

By Mary Stewart, Jim G. Petrie, Geoff Brent

"Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is gaining increasing acceptance as a decision-support tool by which to evaluate the environmental performance of a product, process or service. This is evidenced by its inclusion in international policy documents (for example in the European Union’s Integrated Product Policy) and in environmental management standards (the ISO 14 040 series of environmental management codes relate to LCA). In response to this, the minerals industry has conducted a number of commodity-specific LCAs. These include studies for global production of a number of commodities including copper, nickel, aluminium and steel. In addition, a number of minerals companies profess to use LCA as part of their suite of project and technology assessment tools. Often, this collected use represents more a situation of “we do this because we’re told it’s good for business” rather than from any demonstrable evidence of this fact. This has led to a situation of much confusion and disillusionment within the industry, exacerbated by the obvious current limitations of LCA to accurately reflect the environmental performance of minerals and metals.Our point of departure here is that LCA, conforming as it does to the tenets of environmental systems analysis, is a valuable starting point, and that there is merit in exploring to what extent the methodology can be enhanced to better reflect the environmental performance of minerals and metals. Specifically, we explore here the further development of LCA to address the following:• Land Use issues• Consumption of Abiotic Resources including metallic and non-metallic minerals, water and soil)• Human and Eco-toxicity issues relating to mobility and bio-availability of metals• Salinityand address these through selected experimental and simulation case studies relating to energy- and base minerals production. Advances resulting from the United Nations Environment Programme/Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Life Cycle Initiative are presented in that they directly affect the application of LCA to mining, minerals and metals. Comments are offered on how best the mining and minerals industry might interface with future developments resulting from this Initiative in order that the Initiative can deliver outcomes which render LCA a useful tool for decision making in mining and minerals processing."

Jan 1, 2003

By Q. Zhang, J. A. Finch

"Sphalerite flotation in the absence of copper activation at moderately alkaline pH has been observed in laboratory studies. An in-plant test of this observation was conducted at Kidd Creek Mine LTD. using a portable minicell flotation circuit. The results confirm that raising the pH causes sphalerite flotation.The testwork with the minicell circuit is described. The circuit, built around 2, 51 cells donated by the Noranda Technology Centre, was funded by Air Liquide and NSERC. It includes a data acquisition system to monitor continuously dissolved oxygen, pH and Pulp potential.INTRODUCTIONFlotation of sphalerite is normally practised by adding CuSO4 as an activator under alkaline pH. Recently there have been a number of laboratory and plant examples of sphalerite flotation without deliberate addition of cu++ ions (Girczys, 1972; Mukherjee, 1976; McTavish, 1980; Marouf et al., 1986; Mielczarski, 1986; Leroux et al., 1987; Palsson and Forssberg, 1989; Sandoval-Caballero et al., 1990; Zhang et al., 1991).In batch tests, with a sample of Pb/Zn ore from Polaris, Leroux et al. (1987) found that sphalerite became floatable after adjusting pH to 9. 5-11: they ruled out natural floatability or the formation of elemental sulphur on the surface but suspected iron hydroxy compounds were responsible. Sandoval-Caballero (1990) conducted a continuous minicell test at Brunswick Mining and obtained a 44 % Zn recovery and 40.5 % Zn grade concentrate without deliberately adding CuS04 at pH= 10.5. With single mineral studies, Zhang et al. (1991) revealed good sphalerite floatability (over 80% recovery) in pH range 8 to 11 and found that this floatability was related to pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) level and Fe++ species present in the system.To explore further the conditions under which sphalerite can float without addition of CuSO4 , a continuous pilot test using minicells was performed at Falconbridge Ltd., Kidd Creek division. The set-up is briefly described (a more detailed description is given elsewhere in these proceedings) with emphasis on the data acquisition system - dissolved oxygen, pulp potential and pH were monitored continuously. Results of testwork investigating pH, CuS04 addition and gas composition are presented."

Jan 1, 1992

YOUR mom was right …count to 10. Most workers today report that they find their jobs stressful. Miners, in particular, are faced with hazardous and changing environments. Every shift provides different conditions and challenges. Coping with stress is an important tool to maintain your physical and mental health. Now, back to mom. Studies on stress tell us that shifting your focus away from what is causing your stress increases your ability to cope. Counting to 10 is one method. Science proves mom right. The stress response We are born with the stress response, which is a survival instinct, sometimes called the "fight or flight" response. When approached by a tiger in the jungle, our ancestors would perceive danger and prepare to fight or run. The body prepares for the fight or flight response in a number of ways. The bloodstream brings extra glucose and oxygen (fuel) to the heart, the sense of pain is dulled, and memory and thinking improve. The pupils dilate for better vision and the lungs take in more oxygen, while heart rate and blood pressure increase. Body hairs become erect, as puffed-out hair makes an animal look bigger and more dangerous. Once the perceived danger is gone - we have run fast enough to get away from the tiger or won the fight - the body returns to normal functions. Unfortunately, civilization gives us too many opportunities to experience this response. If activated too often, it can create wear and tear on the body, which may lead to injury and illness. Chronic and traumatic stress There are two key types of stress: chronic stress and traumatic stress. Both types can cause both physical and psychological symptoms. Chronic stress builds up from the day-to-day hassles. Traumatic stress results from a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, a mine disaster, or the sudden death of a loved one. Chronic stress is associated with an increased risk of a number of health problems including heart disease, depression, back pain, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Traumatic stress may lead to post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Miners may experience both chronic and traumatic stress in their work.

By Z Chang, S A. Mrozek

"An EXTENDED ABSTRACT is available for download. A full-length paper was not prepared for this presentation. Antamina, Peru is the largest Cu-Zn skarn deposit in the world. Skarn mineralisation is focused around a multiphase Miocene intrusive complex comprising at least eight distinct phases identified by cross-cutting relationships, including truncated veins, xenoliths and chilled margins. Skarn alteration and mineralisation, as observed in drill core, remain open at depths exceeding 2.2 vertical kilometres.Porphyry intrusions occur as four major phases with subphases (from oldest to youngest): P1 (a, b), P2 (a, b), P3 (a, b) and two dykes of uncertain timing named Oscarina-1 and Oscarina-2. P1a is a hornblende-biotite quartz diorite porphyry with pervasive K-alteration, local endoskarn and 30–40 per cent sheeted quartz veins, all of which obscure original igneous textures. P1b dacite porphyry is a minor unit with <10 per cent phenocrysts and <3 per cent quartz veins. P1b cuts P1a; P2 dykes cut both units. P2a porphyritic biotite quartz monzonite contains K-feldspar megacrysts up to 4 cm long, local K-alteration and 2–80 per cent quartz stockwork veins. P2b biotite monzonite porphyry contains approximately 50 per cent phenocrysts and typically <10 per cent quartz veins. P3a (brown groundmass porphyry) and P3b (coarse phenocryst porphyry) are minor in volume and extent, and both cut P2 bodies. Oscarina dykes comprise two separate but parallel bodies. Oscarina-1 is a feldspar-phyric rhyolite porphyry, while Oscarina-2 is an intensely chloritised andesite porphyry. Oscarina-1 has a U-Pb (laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)) age of 10.1 ± 0.1 Ma, whereas P2 U-Pb zircon ages (LA-ICP-MS) range from 10.0 ± 0.2 Ma to 9.9 ± 0.3 Ma.All the intrusive phases contain quartz veins, with P1a and P2a having the most intensive K-alteration and most abundant quartz veins ± endoskarns. Each phase may have contributed to mineralisation at the right depths and within favourable wall rocks (ie marble) during uplift of the Antamina structural block. Therefore, a model of multiple intrusions during continuous uplift explains the vertically extensive (>2.2 km) skarn and mineralisation at Antamina.CITATION:Mrozek, S A, Chang, Z and Meinert, L D, 2015. A model for the intrusive sequence and Cu-Zn skarn formation at the Antamina deposit, Peru , in Proceedings PACRIM 2015 Congress, pp 423–430 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Mar 18, 2015

By Jorge Díaz Artieda

El presente trabajo señala los factores que determinaron la expansión de la mina subterránea más grande del país a través de la compañía CENTROMIN, a fin de operar a un máximo nivel de producción en dicho yacimiento. Entre los principales factores tenemos el constante minado selectivo, la viabilidad económica de la expansión y la potencialidad de las reservas. Este proceso de expansión conlleva el uso de los recursos mineros de Cobriza, la baja de costos y la producción de concentrados a un ritmo consistente con las reservas y potencial de dicha mina.

Nov 8, 1982

By E. R. Bauer

This report describes a U.S. Bureau of Mines investigation into the removal of gate road chain pillars in conjunction with longwall retreat mining. The research objective was to determine, through evaluations of the loads imposed on the gate road pillars and supplemental support elements in the entries, how the pillars, supplemental support, and entries were affected by the longwall abutment pressure. To achieve this goal, vibrating wire stressmeters and hydraulic flatjack pressure cells were installed in the support elements to monitor stress change caused by abutment pressure as a function of longwall face advance. The findings documented in this report are the result of information collected from instrumentation and observation at the mine. Pillar and support loading measurements and stability observations revealed that the roof and the sup- port elements remained stable during panel retreat, while the face progressed at a normal rate of advance. The ability to safely and efficiently mine chain pillars during panel retreat increases resource recovery and can provide several other benefits described in this report.

Jan 1, 1993

Reduce the number of accidents in which large mining trucks crush objects that were not visible to the driver. Approach Improved rear view mirrors, light-bending plastic lenses, and a closed circuit TV, are combined in a rugged system that allows the driver to see almost all areas around a large raining truck. How It Works Improved mirrors, used in place of ordinary left and right rear view mirrors, give wider angle viewing. Fresnel lenses, two mounted on the front edge of the hood and another one mounted above the right front fender, show objects close to the front and right side of the truck. A rugged closed circuit TV camera mounted above the rear axle reveals objects behind the truck. See diagrams showing reduction of blind area around a 150-ton mining truck. The improved mirrors for rear viewing are approximately rectangular. The left rear view mirror has a flat reflecting surface 10 inches wide by 20 inches high. The right rear view mirror is curved to give wider viewing angles, both from left to right and up and down. This mirror is 12 inches wide by 16 inches high. Its convex reflecting surface has the same curve as the surface

Jan 1, 1979

By Daniel Brutto

"Environmental considerations are a key driver within marine mining consenting processes across different national and international legislative regimes and are critical in shaping the global public perception of the industry. As a result, it is vital that mining companies seeking to operate within marine environments establish a robust understanding of the sensitivities of the seabed environments in which they are active, the impacts of their activities and the ability of the environment to recover from these impacts. The significant risks of failing to do so include an inability to either obtain or maintain operating permits. At the individual project level, the environmental effects of any given development project are typically defined within the scope of an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). For well-established industries operating in well-studied environments this approach typically works well. However, where emerging industries or existing industries that are operating within new environments are concerned, there may be significant knowledge gaps pertaining to our understanding of how specific anthropogenic practices or activities interact with the marine environment. These knowledge gaps can cause significant uncertainties pertaining to the likely significant effects of a project. Such uncertainties may result in barriers to industry and economic progress, increased consenting risks, increased project costs to be borne by individual project developers through the acquisition of additional environmental data during the pre-consent or post-consent project phases, project delays and/or significant increases in environmental monitoring burdens with corresponding increases in project costs."

Sep 1, 2014

By M. M. Tilman

Etchants containing hexavalent chromium and sulfuric acid are used in a variety of surface-finishing operations. When the resultant spent solutions are discarded, substantial quantities of chromium are lost and pollution prob¬lems are created. To minimize the undesirable environmental effects while improving metal and minerals recycling technology, the Bureau of Mines is con¬ducting research on a method for the economic inplant recycling of these waste etchants. Trivalent chromium, produced when the etchant reacts with a substrate, is oxidized in the anode chamber of a diaphragm cell; other metals, dissolved during the etching operation, are transferred to the catholyte. When waste brass etchants are treated in this manner, all of the trivalent chromium is oxidized and more than 40 percent of the copper and zinc is removed. Similar copper removal and chromium oxidation are achieved with waste printed circuit board etchants and rinse waters from plastic etching operations. The electrical energy needed to regenerate 1 kg sodium dichromate is less than 9 kwhr. Regenerated brass etchants evaluated by two companies equaled or exceeded the performance of fresh etchants.

Jan 1, 1979

By S. L. Windes

This report presents physical and petrographic properties of approximately 60 types of rock from operating mines or mineral-investigation projects and supplements Repot of Investigations 4459, Physical Properties of Mine Rock (hereinafter referred to as Part I). The physical properties evaluated include the following: Apparent specific gravity Apparent porosity Compressive strength Flexural strength (modulus of rupture) Impact touchiness Abrasion hardness Scleroscope hardness Modulus of elasticity (Yourg?s modulus) Modulus of rigidity Specific damping capacity Longitudinal bar velocity

Jan 1, 1950

By A. J. Hynes, Lutes. G. G., Ravenelle. J. -F.

"The Anomaly A area of the Clarence Stream gold deposits in southwestern New Brunswick contains mineralized structures that bear geometrical relationships to regional folding events. The four mineralized zones of Anomaly A (AD, MW, 93, and Murphy) are hosted by turbiditic graywacke, quartzose wacke, siltstone, and argillite sequences of the Kendall Mountain Formation. A regional scale structural analysis reflects at least four deformational events, three of which appear to control the folded geometry of Anomaly A (D2, D3, and D4). F2 and F3 folds are coaxial and are refolded into a dome and basin geometry by F4 folds. The mineralized zones are subparallel to axial surfaces of F2 folds. Structural analysis of a mineralized zone exposed at surface indicates that gold mineralization is hosted by a quartz-vein system that comprises veins generated during both D2 and D3. Threedimensional representations of Anomaly A created using drill-core data and ®GoCAD suggest that the quartz-vein system was emplaced in fault structures during D2 as well as within brecciated dilation zones during D3. Three of the four zones that make up Anomaly A have F2 hinge surfaces that can be linked through a geometry compatible with the style of F3 and F4 folds. The apparent continuity of these three zones indicates the potential for kilometer-scale mineralized structures at Anomaly A. Le secteur de l’Anomalie A du gisement aurifère Clarence Stream contient des zones minéralisées qui montrent des relations géométriques avec les épisodes de déformation régionale. Les quatre zones minéralisées de l’Anomalie A (AD, MW, 93, Murphy) sont comprises dans une séquence turbiditique composée de grauwacke, de wacke quartzitique, de siltstone, et d’argilite appartenant à la Formation de Kendall Mountain. Des quatre épisodes de déformation étudiés par l’entremise de cartographie structurale, trois semblent contrôler la géométrie de l’Anomalie A (D2, D3, et D4). Les plis P2 et P3 sont coaxiaux et sont replissés en dômes et bassins par les plis P4. Les zones minéralisées sont subparallèles aux plans axiaux des plis P2. Une analyse structurale effectuée sur une zone minéralisée exposée à la surface indique que la minéralisation aurifère est localisée dans un système de veines de quartz qui contient des veines générées durant D2 et D3. Des représentations en trois-dimensions créées avec le programme informatique ®GoCAD à partir de données de forages suggèrent que le système de veines est localisé dans des zones de failles D2 ainsi que dans des zones de dilatation associées avec D3. Trois des quatre zones qui forment l’Anomalie A possèdent des plans axiaux P2 qui peuvent être liés par l’entremise d’une géométrie qui respecte le style des plis P3 et P4. La continuité apparente de ces trois zones indique qu’une structure minéralisée pourrait s’étendre sur plusieurs kilomètres dans le secteur de l’Anomalie A."

Jan 1, 2008

By L McCracken

Up until 1990 CoalCorp North Island's accident record was six times that considered acceptable in those NSW operations with good accident prevention programmes. This was an obvious avoidable burden on the company in both human and cost terms.   Late in 1989 an accident prevention programme was implemented with the objective of achieving a 50 per cent reduction in the lost time accident frequency rate within 12 months. The key to achieving this objective was recognised as being an attitude change in the total workforce from General Manager downward. Management commitment and action were seen to be critical to the success of the programme.   Through very basic and simple training programmes in accident investigation, analysis and reporting, communication, on-the-job coaching and in focusing on improving supervision skills, the original objective was achieved.   During 1991 the application of methods improvement and hazard recognition techniques are seen as the logical step to achieving a further 50 per cent reduction in the accident frequency rate.

Jan 1, 1991

By Maurice Hunter

The paper outlines recent design developments in the computerization of surface crawler drills for the quarry industry. It references the technology firstly developed for the underground mining and construction industry, where automation and computerization has been in demand for a number of years.

Jan 1, 2003