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By S. Acar

"In recent years the gold mining industry has been challenged by declining metal prices as well as having to treat ores that have low grades and are refractory in nature. Many factors must be considered when metallurgical studies are designed to develop process design criteria for these type of ores. These factors are mostly related to the mineralogical and chemical compositions of the ores, the geological setting of the deposit and how the ore/waste will be mined, such as whether openpit or underground, the mine schedule, and the mine fleet type and capacity. The purpose of this paper is to provide an experience-based practical approach to how to select and characterize test samples as well as devise process development metallurgical studies for both oxide and refractory gold ores, and to provide insight into some of the matters that might go wrong during the course of the studies. This paper is intended as both a guide for someone new to the field and also as a reminder for those familiar with the field. IntroductionThe recent decline in ore grades and metal prices have challenged mining companies to reduce capital and operating costs associated with developing new mineral resources. In some cases, metallurgical studies have been sacrificed to prevent cost overruns resulting in inadequate mineralogical, chemical and metallurgical characterization. Consequences have included longer construction schedules, higher initial and working capital, higher operating costs and less than desirable plant performance (Whincup, 2010; Torres, Chaves and Meech, 1999).Mineralogy, geology, mining type and sequence, and the metallurgy of an orebody will determine the process development metallurgical study requirements and eventual process plant design. Therefore, once the geologist has an early indication of a prospective orebody, geologists, metallurgists, mining engineers, and social and environmental responsibility scientists should convene and devise a plan on how to exploit the orebody economically (Lunt, Ritchie and Fleay, 1997).Geologists may find a prospective orebody solely based on grade. However, if the orebody cannot be mined and processed economically, then it is deemed not to be a deposit. An example of this could be a refractory gold deposit, either sulfidic, carbonaceous or siliceous refractory or any combination of those, that may not be mined and processed economically due to reasons such as the physical location of the deposit, depth of the ore lode, or social and environmental concerns. Therefore, an early collaboration between all disciplines must be established.Each orebody may have its own unique mineralogical, geological and chemical characteristics (Guresin et al., 2012). These unique characteristics should be effectively sampled to reduce risks associated with process design and engineering efforts for the process development metallurgical studies. If the sample or samples are not representative of these unique characteristics, then the studies performed will be pointless. The project metallurgist in charge of conducting metallurgical studies should also possess general geology, mineralogy and mine engineering knowledge. Recommended readings are a book on understanding mineral deposits by Misra (2000) and articles on heap leach development by Scheffel (2014a and 2014b)."

Jan 1, 2016

By L. Hutton, S. W. Colley

"The release of soluble salts of base metals from acid mine pits and in the waste water from metal refiners is an avoidable source local pollution and contamination. Tightening of the regulations controlling natural resource extraction and industrial wastewater discharge is mandating the removal and recovery of metals from waste streams, and the remediation of contaminated sites. There is an economic incentive in recovering the valuable copper and nickel, as the value of the recovered metal can offset remediation costs and for high flow waste streams can be a source of income. Extraction of metals from waste streams by conventional Ion Exchange and chelation resins is widely practised, but has limitations on applicability in complex and dilute feeds due to the structure and properties of polymeric resin beads. Composite Advanced Ion Exchange (AIX) materials have been developed for the recovery and purification of base metals from base metal mining and metal processing industries. A silica-composite based resin has been developed for the selective extraction of copper from high iron containing feeds. This resin can be eluted with sulfuric acid yielding a copper stream suitable for return to solvent extraction or to electrowinning. We describe the development and application of the resin and process to two acid mine drain feeds of varying copper and iron concentrations, and show that the copper concentration can be considerably upgraded even at small scale with a final metal content of >95% copper.INTRODUCTIONWaste water with high sulphate concentrations, low pH and containing complex and variable mixtures of metals is an inevitable product in the mining, extraction and metal refining industries. One problematical water source is Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) which in addition to the metals of interest also contains a wide range of contaminating elements. Purge streams from metal refining are less complex in composition but contain significant quantities of the value metals. The typical treatment of such waste streams is treatment with lime to increase the pH of the water, precipitating the dissolved metals and sulphate as a sludge of mixed metal oxides/hydroxides and sulphates. The process is effective in producing a water stream that can be safely discharged but if there are significant concentrations of value metals such as copper, nickel, zinc then there can be a considerable loss of metal value."

Jan 1, 2016

By A. Quilodran, B. Jakovljevic, T. McCallum, P. Wong

"Rare earth separation by solvent extraction (SX) requires multiple separation plants each consisting of many extract, scrub, and strip stages to separate the individual metals. SX modeling advances have brought benefits to circuit design and process optimization by quickly narrowing test conditions without the need for exhaustive laboratory studies. Modeling can be used to optimize circuit configuration, O/A ratios, and acidities, which allows for CAPEX and OPEX savings. A comparison between pilot plant data and the results expected from modeling is presented for rare earth separations with CYANEX® 572.INTRODUCTIONRare earth separations can be difficult due to limited separation between the elements (Xie, Zhang, Dreisinger, & Doyle, 2014). This requires relatively complex solvent extraction circuits utilizing multiple extract, scrub, and strip stages as well as multiple SX configurations to achieve the desired metal purities. Designing rare earth circuits can be complex, and significant time and testing may be necessary to determine the required staging and optimal conditions.Circuit modeling for rare earth separations has been introduced to the industry using CYANEX® 572 extractant (Soderstrom, McCallum, Jakovljevic, & Quilodran, 2014). CYANEX® 572 is an acidic organophosphorus extractant formulation which has a weaker ligand-metal complex strength than that of the traditionally used phosphonic acid extractants. This allows efficient extraction while requiring a significantly lower acid concentration for stripping (Wang, Li, Zhao, Dong, & Sun, 2015). The reduced acid requirement in strip is expected to provide OPEX savings.The modeling can be utilized to quickly determine the required acidity and organic/aqueous (O/A) ratio for a given separation. It is also expected to reduce CAPEX requirements as optimal staging can be determined, and implemented.CYANEX® 572, combined with modeling, was utilized to produce a purified dysprosium (Dy) stream. To achieve this separation, multiple SX circuits were designed and operational conditions specified to separate Dy from the mixed rare earth chloride feed."

Jan 1, 2016

By A. C. de Araujo, M. G. Barbosa, R. Martino, S. Gaydardzhiev

The Iron Quadrangle district is a world-class iron ore mining district in the region of Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais state, in Brazil. Many mining companies have been mining high-grade hematite ores for decades throughout the region. The mines reserves often include itabirite ores which are available in high volumes, but have lower iron grades than hematite ores and require elaborated mineral processing to meet the requirements of downstream steelmaking. Itabirite ores have acquired importance, with the depletion of high-grade hematite reserves due to their intensive mining. The objective of this paper is to propose a geometallurgical model for the processing of itabirite ores from an Iron Quadrangle deposit, which will allow predicting the behaviour of ores throughout the deposit, according to their local variations. An initial step consists in characterizing representative samples of the different ores to acquire mineralogical and textural data. Then, itabirite ores of known characteristics are processed with different techniques, in order to extract the trends and key parameters upon which the geometallurgical model is developed. At first, the model takes into account the particle size distribution and its shift during mining and screening, as well as the chemistry and mineralogy of the material. Then, using the previously identified key parameters such as iron recovery, the model predicts the composition of the processing products. Finally, this data is used to model the mineralogy and mass recovery of the products. The geometallurgical model is of great importance, as it is able to model the processing of any sampled ore throughout the deposit. The incorporation of the results in a mining block model will assist mine planning and opens new opportunities for an optimized mining schedule.

Jan 1, 2016

By K. Bachmann, M. Rudolph, U. A. Peuker, H. H. Duong, T. Heinig, T. Leißner, H. Schubert, Helmholtz-Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg

"Minerals can be liberated by random fracture of particles into smaller fragments or by detachment along phase boundaries. These two mechanisms represent borderline cases. When ores get comminuted the liberation of minerals is achieved to some extent by both mechanisms. This article describes a method to determine the extent of transgranular and intergranular fracture on surface exposure of minerals based on 2-dimensional liberation analysis.The approach uses the non-biased surface information like phase specific surface area (PSSA), phase specific free surface (PSFS) and phase specific locked surface (PSLS) of minerals and their change with comminution. The amount of transgranular and intergranular fracture on surface exposure can be calculated using the phase specific surface parameters.A sedimentary rock (apatite ore), an igneous rock (nepheline-syenite) and an artificial material (copper slags) were ground to different fineness. Based on the mineral liberation analysis (MLA) of feed and products, the extent of phase boundary fracture on the surface exposure of the minerals is studied.INTRODUCTIONMinerals can be liberated ether by comminution or by detachment (Gaudin, 1939). Liberation by comminution is a random fracture mechanism, which is not being influenced by ore texture, grain boundaries and mineral features (transgranular fracture). Liberation by detachment represents a fracture along grain boundaries (intergranular fracture). Random fracture often is named as the dominating mechanism for the liberation of ore minerals. This has been the basis to simplify models for liberation modelling (Barbery, 1991; King, 1979; Meloy, 1984) assuming that the probability of cracks moving along grain boundaries is zero. Thus, no interfacial area is lost during comminution."

Jan 1, 2016

By Michael S. Moats, Prashant Bagri

"In recent years with increasing concerns about energy consumption in hydrometallurgical processing, there is an ongoing attempt to use Catalytic Titanium Anodes (CTAs) for copper electrowinning. For this work, anodes with IrO2 - Ta2O5 coatings were prepared in the laboratory with the same total coating loading but varying the number of layers by changing the speed of withdrawal in dip coating. A second set of CTAs were fabricated on niobium, Ti Grade 1, Ti Grade 7 and Ti Grade 36 metal substrates. All the anodes prepared in the laboratory were characterized using standard electrochemical techniques and subjected to accelerated life testing. It was found that the coating would not adhere to the niobium substrate, the grade of titanium had a minimal to no effect on the life of the anode, and it is observed that as the coating speed slows, there is an increase in the electrochemically active surface area of the coating which seems to directly contribute to an increase in the Tafel slope of the anodes. There was inconclusive evidence on the effect of coating speed on anode lifetime.INTRODUCTIONLarge scale hydrometallurgical extraction of copper has become widely practiced over the last 40+ years. The hydrometallurgical route entails leaching, solvent extraction and electrowinning. With the increasing desire to process refractory sulphides like enargite and chalcopyrite through the hydrometallurgical route, use of hydro-processing of copper is expected to remain high.In conventional electrowinning, copper is deposited on the cathode and an inert anode is used for oxygen evolution. Presently, the most common anode material is rolled lead-calcium-tin and the cathode is 316L stainless steel (Robinson et al., 2013). This lead alloy is fairly inexpensive and is robust, providing lifetimes typically of 4+ years. The main drawbacks of lead alloys are their relatively high oxygen evolution overpotential, the need for cobalt in the electrolyte to reduce their corrosion, the contamination of cathode product by lead, and the generation of harzardous by-products (Hiskey, 1999)."

Jan 1, 2016

"There are a number of disciplines in the minerals industry for which concern has been expressed regarding the sustainability of human capital. The boom-bust cycles that occur in the industry, the trend in tertiary education towards consolidation or in some cases cessation of minerals related programs and the increasing frequency of fly-in fly-out operations can all contribute towards a decline in the number of professionals with basic skills in process mineralogy. This paper describes approaches taken by the authors to incorporate process mineralogy into three levels of education, namely undergraduate, recent graduate and experienced professionals. The primary objective in designing the learning activities is the development of authentic learning experiences that provide participants with relevant skills in process mineralogy. Selected examples of approaches used by other education groups globally to address this issue are also provided.INTRODUCTIONThe boom and bust cycle of the mining industry has trickle down effects in tertiary education in terms of the ability of universities to consistently provide high quality graduates with relevant skills. When the commodity price surged in 2002 skills shortages in critical resource related professions were reported and despite investment in skill development there was a view from employers that not enough young people were graduating from relevant education programs (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2012). At the time this signalled positive growth for engineering disciplines catering to the mining industry, however during the downturn cycles, most recently since 2012, graduates exiting from the discipline can find employment difficult and this contributes to reduced enrolments in subsequent years. From an AusIMM (Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy) members’ employment survey conducted in 2013, more than half of the graduates exiting from disciplines related to mining and minerals were not confident of finding employment (AusIMM, 2013). In the long term the concern is not only how to sustain enrolment and graduate numbers but also to provide the opportunity for students to acquire the professional skills that they require to make them attractive to industry.Maintaining and sustaining core competencies in the minerals discipline is an ongoing challenge. There have been a number of recent papers on this issue presented at international conferences (e.g. McCaffrey et al, 2014; Drinkwater and Napier-Munn, 2014) and there is general agreement that one of the ways in which the deficit in foundation concepts can be addressed is through workplace development. Drinkwater and Napier-Munn (2014) presented data from a survey of industry professionals that indicated that more than 90% of respondents undertook on average 30 days of training each year of which approximately 5 days was professional short courses."

Jan 1, 2016

By Ralph J. Holmes, David McCallum, Alan Roberts, Rolando Orense, University of Auckland, Tobias Krull, Tom Honeyands, Kenneth Williams

"The safe ocean transport of bulk commodities like iron ore, coal, nickel ore, manganese ore and bauxite by large bulk ships is vitally dependent on the stability of the cargo under the influence of wave induced ship motion. Safety standards are set by such bodies as the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) with recommended tests for the assessment of bulk commodities. Since the 1960s, the bulk cargo code (BC Code) commenced defining methods to determine the Transportable Moisture Limit (TML) for transportation of bulk commodities. By the latter part of the 1960s, three TML test methods were defined, namely the Flow Table, Proctor-Fagerberg and Penetration tests. All three tests were predominantly aimed at determining TML values for mineral concentrates.More recently, bulk commodity producers, Maritime Organisations and Port Authorities worldwide have been investigating whether commodity based TML methods better reflect realistic safe ship transportation than the current concentrate based TML test methods. In these investigations, the relationship between the mineralogical and particulate parameters of specific commodities with respect to cargo stability and moisture retention has provided insights into the development of tailored TML test methods. To this end, an AMIRA International project (P1097) undertaken by CSIRO, TUNRA Bulk Solids, the University of Newcastle and the University of Auckland assisted the IMO Technical Working group to investigate the relationship between iron ore fines characteristics and a new TML test specific for iron ore fines bulk cargoes.A review of the three standard concentrate based TML methods and characterisation studies of iron ore fines, as well as cyclic triaxial testing to determine liquefaction resistance, resulted in the development of a modified Proctor-Fagerberg method for determining the TML of iron ore fines. Of particular importance in determining TML is mineral composition, porosity, particle density and allowing time for moisture equilibration."

Jan 1, 2016

"This model specification includes sample text shown in normal font with commentary in italics. The commentary is intended to highlight project-specific items the specification writer should consider during development of the specification. In some sections, typical values are presented to indicate common practice, and these values may be changed to reflect projectspecific requirements. The commentary should be removed before using the specification for a project.1. SCOPEThe work consists of designing, furnishing, installing, post-tensioning and testing helical anchors used to support tension loads, and any ancillary materials (e.g., load transfer devices, etc.) according to the project plans provided and these specifications. Unless otherwise noted, the installing contractor shall provide all labor, tools, equipment, and materials necessary to accomplish the work. The parties referred to in this specification are as follows:• The Owner is the property owner.• The Owner’s representative is the individual or firm hired by the Owner to execute project tasks required for the successful design and construction of the overall project. Tasks could include construction management, design, oversight, etc.• The anchor designer is the individual or firm generally hired by the installing contractor to design the helical anchors.• Installing contractor installs and tests (if necessary) the helical anchors, and possibly other tasks associated with the project.It is important to clearly define the roles and responsibilities of every party on each project to promote good communication and reduce potential for contractual misunderstandings. Different types of contractual vehicles (design-build, value engineering, etc.) require different roles and responsibilities for the various parties, which should be considered in specification development.The Owner will provide suitable access to the construction site for the installing contractor’s personnel and equipment. Unless specifically noted otherwise in the contract documents, the Owner will remove and replace any structures, utilities, pavements, landscaping or other surficial improvements in the work area as necessary to facilitate the work. The Owner will be responsible for overall construction oversight to minimize potential for developing unsafe conditions. The work may include post-construction monitoring of anchor performance if required by the Owner or the anchor designer to confirm performance of the anchors subsequent to their installation. The work may also include installation of additional anchors if the initial installation does not meet specified capacity or performance requirements. Responsibility for providing subsurface investigation shall be addressed in the bid documents. The Owner is responsible for providing to the installing contractor all available subsurface soils, rock and groundwater information and geotechnical testing data."

Jan 1, 2016

By C. A. Biley

"A dedicated iron removal stage was installed at Anglo American Platinum’s Rustenburg Base Metals Refiners (RBMR) during an expansion project which began execution in 2010. The Pressure Iron Removal (PIR) process aims to precipitate iron from a nickel leach solution under medium temperature (145 °C) oxidative conditions using caustic for neutralisation. Since commissioning, the process has been robust in removing iron from the refinery but has shown significant variability in the residues produced. These residues, which are typically comprised of ferrihydrite, hematite or natrojarosite, have varying iron contents and different physical properties which have implications for their filtration and ultimate removal from the refinery. Since over 95% of nickel plated at RBMR passes through the PIR section, volumetric constraints caused by poor filtration performance directly influence nickel production and stabilisation of this process remains central to the continued ramp-up of the refinery to full nameplate capacity. This paper details the development of the PIR process and the journey from concept to implementation. Recent laboratory and plant scale tests have highlighted the importance of the initial phase formed in the autoclave for the ultimate residue requiring filtration and how the feed acid concentration is a critical control parameter. On this basis, a new caustic dosing philosophy was implemented which improved pH control in the autoclave. Further optimisation of the PIR process is on-going.INTRODUCTIONIn 2010, an expansion of Rustenburg Base Metal Refiners (RBMR) to increase nickel production from 21 to 33 ktpa began execution. The management of iron was pivotal in the ultimate configuration in the new circuit and one of the primary differences from the original circuit was the addition of a dedicated iron removal stage: Pressure Iron Removal (PIR). A significant drive for this new unit operation was to facilitate the separation of iron from other leach residues. Not only did this result in a significant decrease in the amount of leach residue but, without the constraints associated with iron precipitation during leaching, has permitted more aggressive leaching conditions and, correspondingly, greater throughput and efficiencies.However, as with many commercial implementations of even mature technologies, the journey from development to implementation has presented challenges for the continued ramp-up of the refinery to full nameplate capacity. Specifically, since all nickel bearing leach solution must pass through the PIR section prior to the nickel purification and recovery circuit, throughput difficulties in the PIR section can directly impact supply of feed to the nickel tank house. Since commissioning, the PIR autoclave has effectively removed iron from the refinery, but has shown significant variation in the solids phases produced in the autoclave. This variation presents difficulties for the filtration of the discharge slurry and represents a key throughput limitation which periodically impacts production. Additionally, the increasing production rates associated with the ramp-up of the refinery have resulted in a significant increase in the required volumetric throughput through the PIR process. This has placed even greater emphasis on improving the stability of the solid phase produced in the autoclave, ultimately targeting an easily filterable residue with high iron content."

Jan 1, 2016

By H. Deveci, E. Y. Yazici, A. D. Bas

The leach solutions of waste of printed circuit boards (WPCB) may contain a wide range of base and precious metals with different concentrations due to heterogeneity of these wastes in composition. Therefore, selection of a suitable metal recovery method is of practical importance for downstream processing of pregnant leach solutions of WPCB. Sulphuric acid leaching of WPCB in the presence of a suitable oxidant is capable of dissolving base metals as well as precious metals such as silver. In this study, cementation of silver from sulphuric acid leach solutions of WPCB using metallic copper, aluminum and zinc was studied. The WPCB sample was assayed to have a silver content of 694 g/t. A synthetic leach solution containing 20 mg/L Ag in sulphuric acid solution (0.51 M H2SO4) was prepared based on the silver concentration in pregnant leach solutions of oxidative sulphuric acid leaching tests. Total sulphate concentration ([SO4 2-]T) was kept constant using sodium sulphate at 1 M. Metallic powders of copper (-850 +600 µm), aluminum (-425 +45 µm) and zinc (-45 µm) were used in the cementation tests. The effects of metal type (Cu, Al or Zn), dosage of metal powders (above the stoichiometric ratio by up to 2000-fold) and temperature (20-80°C) on the rate and extent of silver extraction from the solution was investigated. The effect of presence of copper on the cementation performance was also tested. Under suitable conditions high silver recoveries (>90%) was achieved using metallic copper and zinc while aluminum yielded the lowest silver recovery (i.e. 40% Ag). The kinetics of cementation by zinc was comparatively higher than that of other metals. Increasing the temperature was observed to significantly enhance both the rate and extent of silver cementation. SEM-EDS studies were performed to characterise the metallic powders after cementation.

Jan 1, 2016

By P. V. Amosov, V. A. Masloboev, D. V. Makarov, S. G. Seleznev, A. A. Baklanov

"The development of industry and intensive use of natural resources leads to a significant decrease in the share of reserves of rich ores, deposits of which have nearly all been exploited. Large amounts of displaced rock mass are accumulated, significant emissions of gas and dust from mining, dust from dumps and tailing pits, ingress of chemicals and toxic elements in surface and groundwater all can have negative effects on existing ecosystems and human health. Especially dangerous is the impact in Arctic regions with extreme climate conditions. The maintenance of overburden dumps and tailings dams requires significant capital and material costs. In this paper, some mining enterprises of the Murmansk region, in the Russian Federation, consider the environmental problems of the industry and propose some solutions.INTRODUCTIONThe safety of environment during the extraction and processing of minerals is a very acute problem throughout the whole world. The problem acquires a specific character in the Russian Federation. There, rather poor minerals, often existing in unconventional forms and including several mineral components are processed. The Russian mineral base has a specific geographical location; most of the deposits under operation are located in the Subarctic or Arctic regions, as well as in Siberia and in the Far East. Vast amounts of rock waste and tailings pose serious economic and ecological problems in mining regions. The operation of overburden heaps and tailings requires considerable capital and material costs. The dumps withdraw vast lands from potential commercial use. Large amounts of mined rock disturb the existing geological balance; emissions of gas and dust which accompany the mining operations, dusting of waste heaps and tailings, emissions of reagents and heavy metals into natural surface and ground waters all can produce negative effects on existing ecosystems and human health."

Jan 1, 2016

By S. M. Bradshaw, E. Charikinya

"Microwave induced cracks have the potential to enhance metal recovery from coarse sphalerite particles in heap leaching operations by creating new crack surface areas for lixiviant and enhancing value mineral exposure. The mode of fracture and the extent of mineral exposure due to microwave induced cracks have not yet been investigated. The objective of this study was to determine the extent of particle damage and mineral exposure in microwave treated particles. This was done using X-ray computed tomography (XCT) and image analysis techniques. XCT analysis was conducted on small (–5+4.75 mm), medium (–16+9.5 mm), and large (–25+19 mm) sphalerite ore particles before and after microwave treatment (MT). Geometrical properties, such as volume and surface area of each mineral phase in each particle was determined from the XCT reconstructed images using VGStudioMax image analysis software. These geometrical properties were used to calculate the interfacial areas of sulphide mineral grains in microwave treated particles before and after MT. The ratio of specific interfacial area after MT to specific interfacial area before treatment was used as an indicator of the degree of preferential grain boundary fracture. The results showed significant grain boundary fracture after MT at all sizes. For small sized particles, about 31% of the interfacial area was lost compared to 23 and 16% for medium and large particles, respectively. The results also showed an increase in the degree of mineral grain exposure of 28, 26, and 15% for small, medium, and large particles, respectively, after MT. These results provide experimental evidence supporting improved mineral exposure due to MT. INTRODUCTIONFor some years it has been suggested that microwave treatment (MT) of ores might result in preferential grain boundary fracture that would have benefits such as improved grain exposure and particle weakening. (Kingman, 2006). Most of the experimental work investigating the application of microwaves to mineral processing flow sheets has focused on assessing the benefits of applying microwave technology to flow sheets consisting of size reduction and mechanical flotation cells (Kingman et al., 2004). Experimental studies have shown that coarse crushing during tertiary grinding of microwave treated ore resulted in a better liberated coarser flotation feed (Scott, Bradshaw, & Eksteen, 2008). It has been suggested that improved liberation in milled flotation feed, was due to the presence of grain boundary fracture in microwave treated particles. However, this improvement in coarse particle liberation does not necessarily translate to a significant improvement in downstream flotation recovery (Kobusheshe, 2010). This is as a result of the size limit to the flotation of coarse material, due to detachment forces acting on particle-bubble aggregates, which increase as the particle size increases (Jameson, 2012). Current conventional, mechanically agitated flotation cells are not designed to float coarse material (Jameson, 2012). Hence it has been difficult to show the downstream processing benefits of applying microwaves to ores processed by comminution followed by flotation (Kobusheshe, 2010). It is clear from investigations carried out so far that inappropriate downstream exploitation of microwave treated ore would fail to realise a meaningful process benefit (Kobusheshe, 2010; Ali & Bradshaw, 2011)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Patrick Wong, Gareth Hatch, M. A. Halim, V. I. Lakshmanan, Darcy Tait

"This paper describes development of an integrated chloride process for separation and purification of REEs. The process includes atmospheric leaching of ore/concentrate with mixed chloride lixiviant containing HCl and MgCl2 followed by bulk recovery of REEs, dissolution of the bulk intermediate product, and separation of individual REEs by solvent extraction (SX) process steps. Mixed chloride leaching technology provides the opportunity to regenerate the lixiviant, while the addition of MgCl2 in HCl enhances the hydrogen ion activity by orders of magnitude increasing REE extraction efficiency at a lower concentration of HCl. An individual REE separation process developed by Innovation Metals Corp. is being piloted at a state-of-the-art facility at Process Research ORTECH Inc. in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada. The SX process includes the separation of light REEs (La – Nd), medium REEs (Sm – Gd) and heavy REEs (Tb – Lu plus Y) from leach liquor followed by individual REE separation. Each SX circuit proceeds by multistage extraction followed by scrubbing and stripping. The process is chloride based and reagents are recycled, reducing waste generation and optimizing water usage to reduce environmental impact.INTRODUCTIONRare earth elements (La to Lu plus Y) exhibit a range of unique magnetic, electronic, catalytic and optical properties. Due to these special properties, the application of REEs is increasing and they are found in components for wind power generation, hybrid electric cars, catalytic converters, and many electronic devices.Rare earth elements (REEs) are commonly divided in two groups: light rare earth elements (LREEs) and heavy rare earth elements (HREEs). Light rare earth elements include elements from lanthanum (La) to neodymium (Nd). Although promethium (Pm) is considered an LREE it is unstable and scarcely occurs in nature and is generally excluded. Heavy rare earth elements include elements from samarium (Sm) to lutetium (Lu) plus yttrium. Although rare earth elements are not rare and the rare earth oxides are scattered around the globe, over 95% of REEs+Y are currently produced in China (Pitts, 2011). On one hand the Chinese government is restricting the export of rare earth elements and on the other hand the demand for REEs+Y is increasing in the rest of the world. This has created an imbalance in the supply and demand of rare earth elements and has led to a rush for developing new rare earth projects."

Jan 1, 2016

By G. S. Cole

By 2025, the U.S. automotive industry will have to average 54.5 mpg (4.3l/100km) Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFÉ). While new/improved powertrain technology (turbocharging, electrification, diesels, transmissions and stop/start) will be critical, it is estimated that 25-40% of the new CAFÉ standards will require significant mass reduction, and lightweight structural materials will be required. This presentation examines vehicle mass reduction based on new developments in manufacturing automotive structures and components using light metals (aluminum and magnesium), conventional heavy metals (iron and steel), polymers, and carbon-fiber reinforced polymer composites. Components that used to be sand cast or pressure die cast provided minimal fatigue strength and ductility. But greater mass reduction uses more light metals in structural applications. They require eliminating porosity and inclusions to improve ductility and fatigue strength. Improved casting processing, with vacuum die casting, counter pressure and squeeze casting, and new forging and extrusion applications are being developed for this purpose. New grades of ultra-high strength steels can be made thinner, and save over 1/3 the mass vs conventional mild steels. But more complex and expensive processing, such as hot stamping and in-mold quenching, is required. Most engine block structures have migrated from grey cast iron to aluminum over the past 40 years. But compacted graphite cast iron has higher strength at high combustion temperatures and pressures so that high powered engines can be smaller and even lighter than aluminum. Assembling a range of lightweight materials into vehicle structures requires specialized assembly techniques, including sophisticated structural adhesives that can mitigate vehicles’ unique corrosion environment. The presentation will conclude with discussing lightweighting strategies of Asian, American and, European marques and the materials, component designs and assembly techniques used to achieve 2025 CAFÉ.

Jan 1, 2016

By Corby G. Anderson

"Laboratory testing using industrial electrowinning solutions was performed to determine the best Faradic cell efficiency for copper cathode recovery. The variables tested were solution flow rate, recycle ratio, reagent addition combinations of guar and thiourea, and addition amount of acid mist suppressant CAL FAX DBA-70. The ideal flow rate was determined to be 37.85 litre/min. Additionally, the ideal recycle ratio was determined to be 10:1. The reagent addition scheme from testing which showed the highest efficiency was with 680 g/tonne guar of cathode copper won and with 135 g/tonne thiourea of cathode copper won. These values for reagent addition only reflect the best efficiency and should not be assumed to be the best reagent concentration for copper purity. The amount of foaming agent that showed the best efficiency was the test with 2 ppm of foaming agent. Again this amount of reagent is based on efficiency and should not be taken as the amount of reagent that does the best acid mist suppression. Additional proprietary surface characterization work indicates these additives may have enhanced the cathodic reduction surface morphology of some noble minor impurities. Subsequently, these operating parameters were introduced into the plant operation and proved successful after their implementation.BACKGROUNDCopper electrowinning has become a dominant technology for the production of marketable high grade copper cathode products. The literature is robust with applications, optimizations, additives and developments in this field (e.g., Classens & Harris, 1990; Pfalzgraff, 1999; Tozawa, Su, & Umetsu, 2003; San Martin, Otero, & Cruz, 2005; Houlachi, Edwards, & Robinson, 2007; Romero, Avila, Fester, & Yacher, 2007; Marsden, 2008; Beukes & Badenhorst, 2009; Vainio & Weatherseed 2009; Bender, 2010; Joy, Staley, Moats, Perkins, Uhrie, & Robinson, 2010; Khouraibchia & Moats, 2010; Moats, 2010; Rutledge & Anderson, 2015).Tests of forty hours duration and at room temperature were performed for this project using samples of actual industrial electrowinning solutions. These industrial solutions were comprised of 60 g/L Cu plus 65 g/L Ni, 3 g/L Fe, and 30 g/L free sulfuric acid. Other confidential minor impurities were also present including some solubilized precious metals. The testing apparatus utilizing stainless steel anodes and cathodes is illustrated in Figures 1 and 2."

Jan 1, 2016

By E. Barsky

"Theoretical notions of mass transfer processes in cascade separation of bulk materials have not been adequately developed as yet (Barsky M.D. 1980). In this paper we have derived linear difference equation of the second order for a cascade with initial feeding top any stage proceeding from mass exchange regularities. The solution of these equations has allowed us to determine quantitative dependences of the material distribution over the cascade stages, which serve the basis of the method of predictive estimate of the process results. We have also examined the model of the material distribution coefficient formation at individual cascade stages.We have checked the adequacy of this model to experimental data. It is noteworthy that the obtained theoretical results are phenomenological, i.e. they can be applied to the processes of separation of different physical nature, e.g. of isotopes, liquid media, gases, etc.INTRODUCTIONRecently, the processes of cascade separation of bulk materials have found broad application in various industries. They ensure a high separation efficiency and high-quality composition of final products. Although specialized literature gives serious attention to cascade processes [1], their theory is not sufficiently developed yet. To achieve optimal organization of this process, we examine mass transfer in a cascade gravitational classifier with stages of identical design."

Jan 1, 2016

By J. R. Goode

Rare earth elements (REE) and their compounds are critical ingredients in numerous necessities of modern life including: the permanent magnets used in electric motors, generators, speaker and hard drives; high performance automobile tires; catalysts; phosphors; optical glass; etc. World production of REE in 2014 was about 110,000 t with about 98,000 t/a being “Light” (LREE) and the balance “Heavy” (HREE). Unlike other mined commodities, the majority of the LREE produced in the world is a by-product and that from a single iron ore mine in China. The balance of the LREE production comes from four REE-only mines, two in China, one in Australia and one in the USA (now on Care and Maintenance basis). The LREE operations comprise very unusual flotation processes and complex hydrometallurgical plants. In contrast, most of the HREE come from a multitude of small in-situ leach operations exploiting a single, dispersed deposit in China using hydrometallurgy alone. All of the current REE operations produce an intermediate mixed REE product that must be separated to yield the high purity, individual, REE required by the market. This paper describes the processes being used to produce LREE and HREE intermediate products and the separation plants used to make the high purity REE compounds that are key ingredients in the magnets in earbuds, turbines, and automobiles; catalysts used in the production of gasoline, and so on.

Jan 1, 2016

By Hajime Miki, Gde Pandhe Wisnu Suyantara, Ahmed Mohamed Elmahdy, Hidekazu Matsuoka, Kyushu University, Tsuyoshi Hirajima

"Selective flotation of chalcopyrite and molybdenite was studied using various surface treatment methods such as electrolysis, ozone treatment, and plasma. Oxidation via electrolysis method indicated that only chalcopyrite surface is affected by electrolysis due to conductivity difference with molybdenite. Oxidation treatments and XPS analyses indicated that chalcopyrite became hydrophilic due to deposition of oxidized iron on its surface. Various oxidizing methods also showed that chalcopyrite was selectively oxidized and this can apply selective flotation of chalcopyrite and molybdenite. The possible mechanisms are proposed in this work based on surface analyses and thermodynamic calculations.INTRODUCTIONCopper sulphide minerals often associate molybdenite (MoS2) which is one of the most important by-products (Wills, 2006). It is important to recover molybdenite perfectly not only since molybdenite is valuable mineral, but also contamination of molybdenite into copper concentrate or contamination of copper mineral into molybdenite concentrate indicates penalty for both concentrate values (Wills, 2006). Conventional separation of copper sulphide and molybdenite has been achieved with sulphide bulk flotation followed by selective molybdenite flotation with NaHS addition since NaHS works as a depressant for copper sulphide. However, this current process shows imperfect molybdenite recovery and depressant such as NaHS needs to be used under specific flotation plant since it might be environmental contaminant. Hirajima et al., (2014) have been studied selective flotation of molybdenite and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), which is the most important copper mineral, with plasma pre-treatment. They reported that plasma pre-treatment process followed by washing treatment can improve molybdenite floatability and depress chalcopyrite. This result is attributed to surface oxidation and selective conversion of chalcopyrite and molybdenite wettability. It may be hypothesized that another surface oxidation methods could give a similar result as plasma treatment process. To test this hypothesis, in this study, as comprehensive study of oxidation effect, various oxidation methods such as electrolysis, ozone, and plasma were investigated. Electrochemical measurements, thermodynamic calculations to predict the chemical reactions happened during the process, various surface analyses, and flotation experiments were carried out."

Jan 1, 2016

By M. Niinae, F. Nakahara, T. Kawamoto, T. Suzuki

"MgO was chosen as an As(V) immobilization agent and a series of immobilization experiments was performed to obtain insights into the behavior of As(V)and MgO during leaching tests. Our experimental and modeling results demonstrated that As(V) immobilization by MgO consists of the following steps: (i) an increase in soil pH, (ii) desorption of As(V) from the soil, and (iii) the re-immobilization of As(V) by MgO/Mg(OH)2particles. Regarding the behavior of MgO, the modeling results showed that when the MgO dosage was 25 mg MgO/4g-drysoilor less, the majority of MgO was used to increase pH, and less than 1% of MgO was used to sorb As(V), which was consistent with the result of leaching tests showing that a high level of As(V) was leached at the MgO dosages. On the other hand, when the MgO dosage was above 25 mg MgO/4g-drysoil, the percentage of MgO used for As(V) sorption increased up to 35%, and correspondingly, the As(V) leaching level decreased to below 0.01 mg/L As at an MgO dosage of 75 mg MgO/4g-drysoil.INTRODUCTIONOne of the major arsenictransport pathways causing groundwater contamination is the migration of arsenicfrom artificially or naturally contaminated surface soils. Therefore, in this study, the immobilization of arsenate (As(V)) in soils was investigated using commercial-grade magnesium oxide (MgO) as a potential cost-effective measurement to prevent the occurrence of groundwater contamination with As(V).With respect to the use of MgO for remediating As(V)-contaminated environmental media, MgO has been used in several studies to remove As(V)from water(Yu et al., 2011; Jia et al., 2013; Tresintsi et al., 2014). Although these studies demonstrated that MgO effectively removes As(V)from water in water-MgO systems, the behavior of As(V)in water-soil-MgO systems has not been evaluated in the literature, and several questions remain to be answered to comprehensively evaluate the use of MgO as an As(V)immobilization agent in soils. For instance, as is well-documented in the literature(Ford, 2002; Lenoble et al., 2002; Zeng et al., 2008), iron oxy-hydroxide (FeOOH) is one of the important adsorbents for As(V)in both natural and engineered systems. Therefore, it is anticipated that the presence of FeOOH in soils significantly influences the behavior of As(V)in water-soil-MgO systems and consequently, the immobilization performance by MgO. Another important question to be answered is the behavior of MgO during the immobilization treatment. In our previous studies (Suzuki et al., 2013a, 2013b), commercial-grade MgO was demonstrated to effectively immobilize lead and fluoride, and the immobilization effectiveness was indicated to last more than 100 years against the exposure to acid rain (pH 4.0). However, these studies focused on the behavior of contaminants. As a result, little is known about the behavior of MgO during the immobilization treatment. The lack of understanding of the behavior of MgO during immobilization treatment is one of the main concerns leading to relatively low public confidence in immobilization treatments."

Jan 1, 2016