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By William E. Shaw, Louis A. Carapella

Magnesium and its alloys have long been characterized as possessing limited capacity for mechanical forming at atmospheric temperatures prior to rupturing despite their outstanding performances in this respect at elevated temperatures. Responsible for this behavior are the fundamental facts that these hexagonal-type metals have comparatively few slip elements at low temperatures for any extensive deformation and that, at high temperatures, additional slip elements become operative, thus enhancing greater plasticity under strain. The transitionai point has been set at 2 25°C by Schmidl for single crystals, and at 250°C by Morel1 and Hanawalt² for extruded magnesium metal. In a recent X-ray investigation on poly-crystalline magnesium-alloy sheets, Barrett and Haller3 have revealed that, below the transitional tempelature, the initial plastic deformation proceeds mostly by a twinning action; that, above such a temperature, the action is mostly by slip. The deep-drawing performance of the magnesium + 1.5 pct alloy sheet† over a wide range of temperatures has been investigated by Weber and Vanden Berg,' and their results are presented in Fig I. It should be noted from this work that a maximum drawability of about 25 pct at room temperature has been obtained on this alloy under the conventional deep-drawing operations. For the same alloy, it is now possible to augment the cold drawability to about 40 pct by a process to be disclosed. Hitherto, this value has been obtained only by deep-drawing the alloy at around 230°C. That greater plastic flow is attainable at atmospheric temperatures on magnesium under certain deformational techniques was discovered by the authors6 in their analyses of plastic-deformational behaviors of pure magnesium. This fact is best illustrated in Fig 2 from the Har-greaves analysis6 performed by the authors under two different modes of loading. For direct test, a separate unstrained specimen was used for each load duration, whereas for the integrated test the same specimen was employed for all the five intermittent loadings so that the load duration was made additive throughout the investigation. The higher plastic flow-rate at room temperature, as designated by the Har-greaves constant S, was obtained by the integrated or intermittent loading procedure. The authors6 in further tests showed that, under such a procedure greater plastic flow was also realized with a progressive increase in deformatione 1 loads. These findings have been applicd

Jan 1, 1947

By J. R. Stone, J. T. Roy

ASARC09s continuous tapper for lead blast furnace is described. Its use throughout the company's plants has resulted in higher production rates, lower labor costs, and better working conditions. It has also permitted wide latitude in blast pressures, as well as in charge and slag compositions. The practice of tapping a lead blast furnace has remained essentially unchanged for many years. In principle, it is a batch operation discharging the products from the continuous smelting of lead-bearing materials. As such, it imposes certain restrictions on the proper functioning of the smelting operation. First, it calls for a highly developed sense of timing, and a considerable amount of physical effort on the part of the operator. Dirty and hot working conditions, as well as the hazards of flying metal and slag, usually prevail. These conditions have resulted in higher labor costs, both in rate and in amount. Labor turnover has also been high. Secondly, rigid control of mechanical and metallurgical factors must be maintained. Frequent oxygen lancing of the tap hole is needed to permit tapping, thereby increasing operating costs. Rapid increases in smelting rate, plugged tap holes, or forgetfulness on the part of the operator may permit the molten material to rise above the tuyeies and freeze the furnace. Also, the operator will often blow out the tap hole after draining, filling the area with fume. Composition of charge also vitally affects the tapping. The type of lead-bearing material being smelted will naturally affect the smelting rate, and thus the frequency of tapping. The amounts and types of fluxing materials, which determine the ultimate fluidity of the slag, must be regidly controlled. Finally, the batch tapping of a continuous smelting operation of this type appears to be wrong in principle. The molten material drains into the crucible at the bottom of the furnace where it starts cooling immediately and continues to cool until tapped out. While keeping the lead molten is no particular problem, maintaining a fluid slag at all times is often difficult, and sometimes impossible. These factors all point to the desirability of a method for the continuous tapping of a lead blast furnace. The expected advantages would be more desirable working conditions, lower labor costs, increased production, and a much wider latitude in both blast pressure and charge composition. CONTINUOUS TAPPING Historical. A number of devices, e.g., mechanical tappers, siphons, and lead wells, have been tried in the past in attempting to effect continuous tapping. None proved to be entirely satisfactory for tapping lead and slag simultaneously. It was not until 1955, however, that ASARCO designed and put into operation a successful tapping unit at its East Helena, Mont. lead smelter. This unit is described in detail in U.S. Patent NO. 2,890,951. Continuous Tapping Unit—See Figs. 1 and 2. Fig. 1 is a schematic drawing of the unit in place, showing front and side views. The component parts are identified in the caption. Fig. 2 is an actual photograph, front view, of the tapping unit attached to the base of the blast furnace. Operation. The operation of the tapping unit is quite simple. Essentially it consists of a narrow tapping bay surrounding the furnace tap hole, with a deep notch in the front wall. When the blast furnace is started this notch is open down to the level of the tap hole. Starting the furnace may be accomplished in several ways but the most satisfactory method is to plug the tap hole with clay, permitting metal and slag to build up inside the furnace. Before the liquid reaches the tuyeres, the plug is removed and the furnace is drained to the settler. The blast is then stopped momentarily while the notch in the front wall of the tapping bay is dammed with chrome brick and plastic chrome ore. The blast is again started, and the height of the dam is adjusted so that the liquid in the bay will counterbalance the internal pressure of the furnace. When the desired level is reached the slag and metal will overflow to the settler. It should be noted that the molten material ,is not siphoned from the furnace and that the metal 'acts as a liquid valve controlling the flow of slag through the tap hole. During normal operations the tapping bay is filled primarily with lead, covered with a thin layer of slag. Thus, the heavier lead plays the major role in compensating for variations in furnace pressures. Due to the high specific gravity of lead, changes in the liquid level in the tapping bay will never exceed a few inches. For this reason it is seldom necessary to change the height of the dam due to minor variations in operating conditions. Some turbulence of the liquid in the bay is essential at all times. This indicates that the level of the

Jan 1, 1963

By Sheldon P. Wirnpfen

AN extensive study of German underground manufacturing experience is being undertaken by the Air Materiel Command. Headquarters officials consider completely underground facilities one of the most effective means of protecting aircraft production against air attacks of the strength and type employed in World War II. Advantages accruing to underground manufacturing installations other than protection are, perhaps, a smaller maintenance problem and the possibility of using gravity flow on some production lines. Offsetting these advantages are the high cost of construction, problems of ventilation, and poor acoustics. Excavation costs might well be less than the cost of enclosing the same area on the surface, as new and better methods of rock drilling and transportation are developed. Certainly the amount of building materials used would be far less than in constructing a surface plant of the same dimensions. A fewer number of skilled workers would be required to perform the labor of excavation. Underground construction would

Jan 1, 1947

By B. N. Das, P. A. Beck

THE o phases have a complex tetragonal structure with Lo/ao = 0.52 and 30 atoms per unit cell.1 A large number of such phases are now known to occur in various binary systems of the transition elements and they exhibit the following typical features: 2,3 The composition of binary o phases is variable, ranging from approximately A4B to ABI. With only a few exceptions, in the o phases the A-ele-ment comes from the V- or Cr- group of the periodic table, while the B-elements are from the Mn-, Fe-, Co-, or Ni- group. In the first long period the corresponding o phases of the V- and Cr-series have approximately the same compositions. However, as the B-element changes from Mn to Fe to Co to Ni, the mean composition shifts monotonously toward higher A-contents.2-4 For example, if the mean compositions of the various o phases with vanadium are compared with each other, the composition shift mentioned above becomes plainly visible: V 30Mn0 80 Vo.45Feo..,, Vo .,Coo. 45 and Vo.5Nio.3. Similiar composition shifts, although not the same composition values, were observed in u phases formed by second and by third long-period transition elements.3'4 This behavior, very characteristic of o phases, is in rather sharp contrast to the usually quite well-behaved stoichi-ometry of the Laves phases. In the latter, the AB2 stoichiometry predominates, with A the large atom and B the small atom.= The p phase occurs in the four binary systems of Mo or W with Fe or Co. On the basis of their crystal structure determination, Arnfelt and westgren6 ascribed to the p phase in the Co-W system the ideal composition W,Co7. Since all four binary pphases have nearly the same composition, it would seem quite plausible that some definite stoichiometry such as A6B7, might be characteristic of this phase, as AB2 is of the Laves phases. On the other hand, it has been noted,7 that the phases occur at average electron concentrations near to those at which the various cr phases are found. Also, it has been pointed out by Shoemaker and associates8 that structurally the a phases and the p phases are somewhat related to each other; both of these structures may be described in terms of suitable stackings of quasi-hexagonal layers'of atoms. By studying a suitably chosen ter- nary phase diagram, one might expect to be able to find out which one of the two conditions, the analogy with the o phase or the constant ratio between the number of large atoms and the number of small atoms in effect governs the behavior of the p phase. Several isothermal sections of ternary systems containing o phases have been investigated. In all cases where two binary o phases occur, these were found to be connected b a more or less straight ternary o phase field.7' '10 Such elongated o phase fields were also found in ternary systems in which only one of the limiting binaries is known to contain o phase. In this manner a latent o forming tendency could be detected and the virtual composition of a "binary o phase", which does not actually occur as such was approximately determined by extrapolation. The behavior of the phases, including their composition shift, is analogous to that of the classical electron compounds, as described by Hume-Rothery.11 In order to decide whether the p phase is essentially a "size compound" like the Laves phases, where a fixed stoichiometric ratio is quite generally maintained between the "large atoms" and the "small atoms", or whether the p phase is typically an "electron compound" in the same sense as ois, it was decided to investigate an isothermal section of the Mo-Mn-Co system. The Mo-Co system12 and the Mo-Mn system13 each are known to have a binary o phase. It could be therefore expected that a ternary o phase field will connect these two binary cr-phase fields. The p phase is known to occur in the Mo-Co system. If the p phase should turn out to form an elongated phase field extending deep into the ternary system, the following considerations mighto apply. The atomic radius of manganese (1.314for C.N.12) is between the va,lues for Mo (1.40Afor C.N.12) and for Co (1.26Afor C.N.12). If it is assumed that p is a "size compound", and that Mn is substituting for the smaller Co atoms in the p-structure in the ternary system, the y-phase field might be expected to extend parallel to the Mn-Co binary line. If Mn is substituting for the large Mo atoms in the p-structure, the p-phase field may be expected to extend parallel to the Mn-Mo binary line. On the other hand, if the p-phase turns out to be an "electron compound" like o, the ternary p-phase field should extend parallel to the ternary o -phase field connecting (Mo,Mn)owith (Mo, Co) a

Jan 1, 1961

By Thomas Harris

This paper. was written in conjunction with the work being undertaken by the Technical Committees on Classification of Coal, and an effort has been made to compile information relative to the use of coal for stationary steam generation in order to use this information to assist the Committee on Classification of Coal for the ultimate purpose of elimination of losses both by the' reduction of indivi-dual effort and waste in the consumption of material. Under the auspices of the National Association of Purchasing Agents, a questionnaire was drawn up to develop this information from stationary steam plants throughout the United States. in order to consolidate the information de-veloped from the many hundreds of boiler tests on coals consumed by various coal¬burning equipment. These questionnaires covered: 1. The company reporting, location and method of delivery to the plant. 2. Complete coal date, including description of coals used (with. sufficient space to- include first, second and third, preference) on--source of coal used,- complete-analysis and factors affecting choice of, coal used. 3. Plant data, divided into - A. Hand fired, B. Overfeed stokers,. . C. Underfeed stokers, D. Traveling grate stokers, E. Pulverized coal, and included complete description of furnace data, draft data, coal-burning rate, type of stoker, type of pulverizer, efficiency date and remarks.

Jan 1, 1933

Jan 1, 1970

By F. G. Clapp

IT is to be hoped that no casual reader will erroneously refer to the latest publication' of the Division of Public Relations of the American Petroleum Institute, as being "Petroleum Facts and Fancies." The facts are so faithfully derived and the figures are so authentically sponsored by the highest sources that no person can read this valuable volume (287 pages and numerous tables) without being convinced that every- thing therein set forth is "the truth and nothing but the truth." Yet, having read the volume from the perspective of the world's petroleum industry and with a critical attitude that comes from years of study of the subjects discussed, I find myself tempted to cogitate and to envisage a few of the fancies that come to mind as a fitting sequel.

Jan 1, 1929

Henry LOUIS, London, England (communication to the Secretary) : Prof. Richards's paper has impressed me as highly valuable. Without entering upon any discussion of it as careful and thorough as it deserves, I venture to mention one or two points which a perusal of it has recalled to my mind in connection with my own study and practice of ore-dressing. I always mentally divide jigging into two phases: 1. A particle at rest on the jig-bed is lifted and carried upwards by the rising current of water, at an increasing velocity, which tends to a maximum. When the upward current is stopped, the particle continues to rise with rapidly diminishing velocity until it comes to rest. This completes the first phase. 2. In the second phase, the particle falls from its position of rest with an increasing velocity which tends again to a maximum, and continues to fall until the rising current of water has reduced its velocity to zero. This completes the second phase. The second phase will evidently be greatly modified by the effect of suction, as Prof. Richards shows; but I do not see that his experiments very clearly imitate the action of the second phase. And the brief intervals at the end of each phase, when the mineral particle, by reason of its acquired velocity, is still moving, though in opposition to the water-current, yet remain to be investigated. I feel especially, in Prof. Richards's paper, a difficulty which I have felt with regard to all similar previous investigations, namely, that the experiments deal with particles falling a long distance, when the velocity becomes uniform. I question whether this uniform maximum velocity is attained in actual jigging-practice. If so, it is certainly for a comparatively very small proportion only of each stroke. It seems to me that an investigation like that of Prof. Richards, but confined to the first 6 or 8 inches of fall only, and carried out with suitably delicate recording-apparatus, is what we

Jan 1, 1895

By A. R. Denison

The area discussed in this report comprises a group of 38 counties lying in the northeast corner of Texas. It covers all, and extends beyond, the borders of what is commonly described as the East Texas Basin. It includes two major oil fields, Van and East Texas; two major gas fields, Bethany and Waskom; and a number of fields, both oil and gas, of lesser importance. All commercial oil production comes from beds of Upper Cretaceous age and almost exclusively from the basal member, the Woodbine sand. Gas is produced from both Upper and Lower Cretaceous beds with the newer production from the older beds. East Texas Field This field continued as in 1932 and 1933 to dominate the drilling and production situation throughout the oil business. A total of 3681 producing wells was completed in this field during 1934. This is an increase of 1215 over the 2466 producers completed during 1933. Total wells

Jan 1, 1935

By J. B. Dyess

TARNISH films on some of the common metals (particularly on copper and silver) have been of much scientific and commercial concern for a long time, but before the development of the electrical method1 of measuring film thicknesses there was no satisfactory quantitative approach by which to study the separate parts of these complex films. This method has been adapted to the measurement of duplex (cuprous-cupric) oxide films on copper .2 In the present work it has been used to measure tarnish films on copper when they were mixtures of cuprous oxide and cuprous sulphide, and also when they contained cuprous oxide, cupric oxide and cuprous sulphide, each component part being measured at a different potential value. Oxide-coated copper specimens, prepared by heating copper in air at chosen temperatures for given periods, were exposed to moist hydrogen. sulphide in air to form the various oxide-sulphide films studied. The comparative resistances afforded by (1) different thicknesses of oxide films, and also (2) equal thicknesses of oxide and sulphide films, against severe attacks of hydrogen sulphide were measured. The electrical method requires that the time be observed for the cathodic reduction of each part of the film substance, and these respective time values multiplied by the constant current give the corresponding quantities of electricity expended. Then each millicoulomb per square centimeter represents a film thickness of T= MX10 8 2D X 96,494 X 103 (a) where M is weight of oxide (or sulphide) giving one gram-atom of oxygen (or sulphur) for cathodic reduction, D is density of the oxide (or sulphide) and t is the thickness in Angström units per millicoulomb per square centimeter. The value of t for cuprous sulphide (cubical) is 14.27, and is obtained by substituting 5.78 for D and 159.20 for M in equation a. Previous values2 of t for cuprous and cupric oxides (12.36 and 6.39, respectively) were used in the present work.

Jan 1, 1939

THE transformation, in a sample of levitation melted iodide titanium, has been studied with a Leitz hot-stage microscope. The specimen was etched in HF:HNO3: glycerine, (1:1:2) giving a structure shown in Fig. 1, and was then heated at approximately 5OC per min. At 870°C (±5OC) the etching product disappeared, the a-grain boundaries showed in relief, and some new grain boundaries (presumably of ß) appeared (Fig. 2, see arrow). Some evidence of ß-grain growth is indicated by the apparent longitudinal movement of a ß-grain boundary shown in Figs. 2 and 3 (see arrows). The specimen was later heated to 1000°C and then cooled at 2°C per min. At 845°C rumpling of the surface was first noticed, Fig. 4, and continued at constant temperature. The photomicrograph reproduced in Fig. 5 was taken 6 sec after Fig. 4, at 845°C. Fig. 6 shows the structure after cooling to room temperature. The room-temperature structure, showing a rumpled surface has been observed by previous investigators.' These structures presumably indicate a sheer transformation ß - a, athermally nucleated, but capable of isothermal progression.

Jan 1, 1960

Jan 1, 1968

By Rossiter W. Raymond

(Canal Zone Meeting, November, 1910.) THE death of Professor Blake removes the oldest of American economic geologists and mining engineers, and deprives this Institute of one of its, earliest and most illustrious members. To many of us it brings a personal loss also, the loss of a friend. William Phipps Blake was born June 21, 1826, in New York City. -His father, Elihu Blake, was a surgeon-dentist of eminence, a direct descendant of William Blake, who settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony about 1630. He was prepared for college at private schools in New York, and entered the Sheffield School of Yale, where he was graduated as Ph.B. in the chemical course, class of 1852, the first graduating-class of the institution. In the same year he became chemist and mineralogist of the New Jersey Zinc Co., and chemist of chemical works at Baltimore, Md. In 1853, lie started the Department of Mineralogy of the World's Fair at New York City. In 1854, 1855 and 1856, he was mineralogist and geologist of the United States Pacific Railroad Surveys of Williamson, Pope, and Whipple, and for the War Department at Washington. His writings, during this period comprise reports on the geology and mineralogy of California and other parts of the Southwest, and constitute well nigh the earliest scientific accounts of the regions described. One of them. was a translation of the Resume and Field Notes of Jules Marcou, of Whipple's expedition. From 1856 to 1859, he was engaged in explorations of the geology and mineral deposits of North Carolina, :and other parts of the country. In 1859, he became editor and proprietor of The Mining Magazine. This was a monthly periodical, founded in 1853 by W. J. Tenny, who conducted it until 1858, when it passed into the hands of Thomas McElrath, a New York publisher, and appeared in May of that year as The Mining and Statistic Magazine, with the name of

Sep 1, 1910

Jan 1, 1968

In any earth-moving operation, more profit may be earned or lost by equipment scheduling than by any other single facet of the project. Many now-defunct earth movers would have survived the cost-profit squeeze had they followed an efficient, cost saving, equipment scheduling program. The ideal program would have every item of the equipment fleet working all of the time. In practice this ideal situation is not possible. Several basic methods of equipment scheduling, with an infinite number of minor variations, are used. The first approach is the use of a "minimum equipment fleet," of which all items or equipment are scheduled each working shift.

Jan 10, 1967

By Oliver Bololes

UNDER the able leadership of Samuel H. Dolbear, the Committee on Nonmetallic Minerals furnished a program of sixteen papers comprising three sessions. An outstanding accomplishment in technology presented at the first session by Benjamin L. Miller and C. H. Breerwood is the application of flotation to the purification of limestone used in cement manufacture. In place of selective quarrying to provide high-grade raw material, the quarry-run stone is pulverized and treated in froth flotation cells for removal of free silica and mica. Some advantages are cheaper quarrying, more complete utilization of quarry rock, avoidance of purchasing high calcium stone, lower fuel cost and improvement in the finished cement. Paul M. Tyler presented the general subject of milling methods as applied to nonmetal lies. He pointed out the importance of some of the more recent refinements in ore dressing, and urged the need of a wider appreciation of their possibilities. The gypsum industry of Canada was described by L. H. Cole. Crystal growth during the setting process was illustrated by moving pictures. The Coastal Plain and interior salt

Jan 1, 1935

Jan 1, 1970

Jan 1, 1967

Jan 1, 1960