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By A. J. R. Curtis

THE Portland Cement Association was organized more than a third of a century ago by a group of cement manufacturers, to do cooperatively the educational and research work needed to ensure proper use of their product. Specifically, the Association has a threefold purpose: (1) to search out facts to ensure the best possible service from concrete; (2) to give the widest possible circulation to facts affecting the use of concrete; (3) to urge practical application of those facts on actual building projects. An organization of technically trained men conducts many research projects in the Association laboratories, interprets their findings and applies them practically in the field. The net effect of this work has been to improve the design and prolong the life of roads, bridges, industrial, commercial and public buildings, homes, farm structures and concrete products. The results of this technical research and experimentation are made available to the entire construction industry through bulletins and reports. Information is also released to the general public through newspapers, magazines and Association publications. In addition to a technical staff in the general office in Chicago, the Association has district offices in 22 cities. Field engineers cover 37 states, the District of Columbia and British Columbia, to give service to users of Portland cement. ACCIDENT PREVENTION During the early part of the century, there began a complete transformation in the processes of manufacturing cement. Electricity, with its attendant hazards, was beginning to replace steam; huge rotary kilns and tube mills were being substituted for the vertical kiln and "coffee grinder" mill. Only a few far-sighted leaders realized the import of these innovations, and they also recognized the fact that workmen must be protected against the hazards of the new machinery. By their sincerity and firm purpose they infused into the whole industry the concept of industry's responsibility for safeguarding employees. Even before effective compensation laws had been passed in most states, the Portland Cement Association had assigned to an Accident

Jan 1, 1937

By Gordon R. Haworth, J. Terry Aimone

The capital-short mining industry, faced with weak metal markets, will need to devise new and novel methods to finance future expansions.

Jan 9, 1977

By M. S. Seltzer

In a previous paper1 it was shown that activation energies for steady-state creep in lead sulfide single crystals varied with the concentration of electronic defects. For n-type lead-excess crystals, values for the creep activation energy, Qc, decreased from 2.9 to 2.2 ev as the carrier concentration increased from 1017 to 1017 electrons per cu cm, while Q, increased from 1.6 to 2.3 ev for p-type sulfur-excess crystals as the concentration of holes increased from 6 X 1017 to 1018 per cu cm. It was also shown in Ref. 1 that the Q, values could best be correlated with the sum of the self-diffusion activation energies in PbS, i.e., for a given concentration of electrons or holes Q, = QPb + Qs, where Qpb and QS are the activation energies for diffusion of pb210 and s35 in PbS. This result suggests that creep rates are controlled by at least two atomic defects, one for lead migration and one controlling sulfur transport. It would be most desirable to interpret these creep energies in terms of an atomic defect disorder model for lead sulfide. Studies of creep rates as a function of sulfur pressure2 indicate that the defects controlling creep rates are singly ionized lead and sulfur vacancies, VPb and Vs. This hypothesis can be more firmly established by determination of Q, under conditions of constant atomic defect concentration rather than constant electronic defect concentration as has been previously done. Therefore, several measurements have been made of Q, on crystals whose con- centration of lead vacancies or sulfur vacancies has been fixed by equilibration under appropriate sulfur pressure and temperature. It was indicated in Ref. 2 that high-temperature isotherms are available which show how the concentrations of various atomic point defects in PbS vary with composition over the entire homogeneity range for the compound. Two such isotherms are shown in Fig. 1 for 900" and 1000°K. Utilizing these isotherms the concentration of a given defect, say Vbb, may be held constant over a particular temperature range by adjusting the sulfur pressure as the temperature is changed. Thus the concentration of one defect suspected of controlling creep rates may be held constant while other defect concentrations vary. The apparent activation energy for formation of these defects can be obtained from the isotherms giving their concentration as a function of sulfur pressure. Activation energies for creep obtained under conditions of constant defect concentration can then be compared with defect formation energies and certain possible atomic defects can be eliminated as creep-controlling species. We have performed creep experiments as a function of temperature at a stress of 244 g per sq mm under conditions which fixed the lead vacancy concentration, V', at 1016, 3.2 x 1016, and 3.2 x 1017 cm-3, and one were the sulfur vacancy concentration, Vs, was held at lo17 cm-3. The results are presented in Fig. 2 as creep rate, k, vs reciprocal of absolute temperature, 1/T. Specimens 34, 35, and 36 were deformed under constant lead vacancy concentration while specimen

Jan 1, 1969

By John G. Koert, Koert D. Burnham, John G. Broughton

Wollastonite in Essex County, New York, occurs as a typical contact mineral in a series of rocks metamorphosed by anorthosite. Sole current use is in various types of electric welding fluxes. Its uniform lathlike shape suggests its use as a specialized filler. Introduction Wollastonite (CaSiO3) was first noted in the vicinity of Willsboro, Essex County, New York, about 1810 by Dr. William Meade, and described from the same locality in 1821 by Lardner Vanuxem.' Recent exploration and development indicate that the deposit is of adequate size for continued exploitation on a larger scale than the present operations. The only other known occurrence of like magnitude in this country is in Kern County, California.* Wollastonite has been reported from Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Lewis County, New York, but these are little more than mineral localities. Geology The Essex County wollastonite has been found outcropping at numerous separate localities in a belt of contact metamorphosed sediments, 1/4 mile wide, which begins 2 miles southwest of the village of Willsboro and trends N. 70" W. for approximately 6 miles (Fig. I). In this belt, the pre-Cambrian Grenville has been injected and partially replaced by the more liquid portions of an anorthositic magma. Bud-dington and Whitcomb3 have described the rock in this contact metamorphosed belt as "Mixed gneisses: Grenville mafic, pyroxenic and garnetiferous gneisses and skarns* with local nearly uniform garnet or pyroxene layers and with gabbroic anorthosite sheets. A few limestone layers." These rocks are underlain, presumably at no great depth, by gabbroic anorthosite gneiss, the typical Whiteface border facies of the Adirondack anorthosite massif. The occurrence of wollastonite in large quantities was discovered during the quarrying of the garnet-rich layer that overlies the wollastonite at one opening. Further prospecting revealed its presence elsewhere in the belt, overlain in most places by the garnet. Accurate tracing of the wollastonite is difficult, owing to the glacial cover and to the fact that the weathered surface of the mineral has a dark, dirty brown color, and that the wollastonite itself has been dissolved more or less completely along the outcrops. It has, however, been noted at 10 localities within the skarn belt in the first 2 1/2 miles from its southeastern end. It has not been found in the northern half of the belt and therefore may be limited to the southern half. At the Fox Hill quarry, which is the main opening, 150 ft. have been exposed, showing an aggregate thickness of 30 to 35 it. Of

Jan 1, 1948

By Koert D. Burnham, John G. Broughton, John G. Koert

Wollastonite in Essex County, New York, occurs as a typical contact mineral in a series of rocks metamorphosed by anorthosite. Sole current use is in various types of electric welding fluxes. Its uniform lathlike shape suggests its use as a specialized filler. Introduction Wollastonite (CaSiO3) was first noted in the vicinity of Willsboro, Essex County, New York, about 1810 by Dr. William Meade, and described from the same locality in 1821 by Lardner Vanuxem.' Recent exploration and development indicate that the deposit is of adequate size for continued exploitation on a larger scale than the present operations. The only other known occurrence of like magnitude in this country is in Kern County, California.* Wollastonite has been reported from Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Lewis County, New York, but these are little more than mineral localities. Geology The Essex County wollastonite has been found outcropping at numerous separate localities in a belt of contact metamorphosed sediments, 1/4 mile wide, which begins 2 miles southwest of the village of Willsboro and trends N. 70" W. for approximately 6 miles (Fig. I). In this belt, the pre-Cambrian Grenville has been injected and partially replaced by the more liquid portions of an anorthositic magma. Bud-dington and Whitcomb3 have described the rock in this contact metamorphosed belt as "Mixed gneisses: Grenville mafic, pyroxenic and garnetiferous gneisses and skarns* with local nearly uniform garnet or pyroxene layers and with gabbroic anorthosite sheets. A few limestone layers." These rocks are underlain, presumably at no great depth, by gabbroic anorthosite gneiss, the typical Whiteface border facies of the Adirondack anorthosite massif. The occurrence of wollastonite in large quantities was discovered during the quarrying of the garnet-rich layer that overlies the wollastonite at one opening. Further prospecting revealed its presence elsewhere in the belt, overlain in most places by the garnet. Accurate tracing of the wollastonite is difficult, owing to the glacial cover and to the fact that the weathered surface of the mineral has a dark, dirty brown color, and that the wollastonite itself has been dissolved more or less completely along the outcrops. It has, however, been noted at 10 localities within the skarn belt in the first 2 1/2 miles from its southeastern end. It has not been found in the northern half of the belt and therefore may be limited to the southern half. At the Fox Hill quarry, which is the main opening, 150 ft. have been exposed, showing an aggregate thickness of 30 to 35 it. Of

Jan 1, 1948

By S. Vela, R. M. McKinley, L. A. Carlton

Johnson et al. have described a new well-testing technique that measures formation flow properties between wells.' The technique, called pulse-testing, requires a sequence of rate changes in the flow at one well and measzcrement of the re.rulting pressure changes at an adjacent well with a very sensitive differential pressure gauge. This paper describes an extensive application of the technique in a producing oil field. Pulse-tests on 28 of 45 possible well pairs in the field provided a picture of the areal distribution of reservoir hydraulic diffusivity, trans-missibility and storage. The primary objective in presenting these data is to demonstrate the potential of the methcid for reservoir description. A second objective is to show in three ways the qualitative and quantitative accuracy of reservoir parameters determined from pulse-tests: (I) pulse-test data show a nonuniformity in the field, closely correlating with the oil-water distribution as given by production data: (2) pulse-test values for permeability are comparable with core va1ue.s; and (3) perhaps most important, the field responds to a conventional interference test in the manner in which pulse-test data predict it should. The pulse-testing technique by Johnson et al.' is an ideal source of data for purposes of reservoir description, for it provides a measurement of formation storage S = +ch, hydraulic diffusivity 91 = k/+cp and transmissibility T — This paper describes an application of this method in a producing oil field. Results were analyzed to give numerical values for the parameters 7, T and S. These values were compared with oil-water production data (for the effect of fluid saturation), with core data and with data from an interference test. The reservoir in which the pulse-test survey was run is the result of a structural trap formed by a fault along the east side of a north-south trending anticline. A down-structure aquifer providcs a natural flank water drive for the pool. The producing formation is a dolomitic lime- stone having mainly vugular permeability; the formation oil has a gravity of 29" API with negligible dissolved gas. The field contains 19 wells, all on pump, arranged on 40-acre spacing along the top of the anticline. Fig. 1 shows the location of all these wells except two at the south end of the field. The dashed line on the right-hand side of the figure represents the approximate location of the fault with respect to well positions. Pulse-Test Survey and Analysis of Data A pulse-test requires a pulsing well and a responding well. In the field, changes were made in the rate of flow at the pulsing well by stopping and starting the pump periodically and measuring the corresponding pressure

Jan 1, 1969

By F. M. Perkins, R. H. Jamison

Publications concerning scaling laws for laboratory flow models of oil reservoirs indicate that the relative permeability and capillary pressure relations must be the same functions of saturation in the model and its prototype. In this paper, the relative permeabilities and saturations are redefined in a way which permits one to have diflerent relative permeability and capillary pressure relations in the model and prototype. The development of the new scaling criteria is demonstrated by deriving scaling laws for one simple flow problem. INTRODUCTION The successful application of information gathered through bench-scale model studies to the prediction of multi-phase fluid flow behavior in petroleum reservoirs requires careful consideration of the scaling criteria. The requirements which must be met for a small-scale model to duplicate the behavior of a much larger reservoir prototype have been discussed by Leverett, et al,' Rapoport,2 and Geertsma, et al.3 According to these authors, the relative permeabilities to water, oil and gas and the dimensionless capillary pressures must be the must have the same values in the model and prototype. Furthermore, they point out that the viscosity ratios must have the same values in the model and prototype. In addition to these requirements, other scaling criteria are given which, when considered, usually dictate a much higher permeability in the model than exists in the reservoir. Since the more permeable model sands may have connate-water and residual oil saturations quite different from those in the prototype, the scaling requirements pertaining to the dependence of relative permeabilities and dimension l ess capillary pressures on saturation usually are not met. Also, if the model fluids are selected to give equal viscosity ratios in the model and prototype, one may find greatly different mobility ratios* in the two cases and, therefore, may expect grossly different flow patterns. For this reason, Craig, et al,' correlated the results of their model studies with mo- bility ratio rather than with viscosity ratio. As yet, however, no satisfactory method has been advanced which permits use of anything other than the scaling requirements outlined in the previously mentioned papers. The purpose of this paper is to present a method of developing a set of scaling criteria which permits different relationships between saturation and relative permeability or capillary pressure in the model and prototype. Rather than attempt to report scaling criteria for a variety of practical situations, this paper demonstrates by use of one simple example how the modified scaling criteria are derived.

By Harry M. Mikami, Harold A. Heiligman

The term chromite is often used to cover all chrome ores and concentrates which are the designations actually employed by most industrial users and producers. Chromite is, of course, the predominant mineral in chrome ores which are aggregates of chromite and gangue minerals, most commonly magnesian silicates. Most chrome ores now used are petrographically chromitites which is a rock, rather than an individual mineral term. The title of this chapter, following past usage, is meant in the broad sense. Chromite is the only primary commercial source of chromium. This book is intended to deal only with nonmetallic minerals and rocks. Chromite uses are both metallic (ferroalloys) and nonmetallic (refractories and chemicals), but any discussion of mineralogy, geology, and mining is common for all types. A number of the major commercial ores are interchangeable, and their uses are determined by economic considerations. Mineralogy COMPOSITION [Chromite is a term embracing a wide range of chromium-bearing spinel*-group minerals the compositions of which can be expressed as (Mg,Fe2+)0.(Cr,AI,Fe3+ )203.t This can be further generalized to R2+O.R23+03 and the molecular RO: R,03 ratio is generally close to one. The exact composition may be arbitrarily expressed as a solid solution of six end-members, MgAI2O4, MgCr2O4, MgFe2O4 FeCr2O4, FeA12O4, and Fe2+.Fe23+04 with the proportions of each stated or plotted in the six-cornered prism of Johnston and Stevens61 or this scheme may be simplified to comprise only three endmembers making up a composition triangle, Fig 1. [ ] FIG 1-Triaxial composition diagram showing molecular compositions of chromites listed in Table 1. The RO.Fe2O3 corner includes Ti02 norms listed in the table. Note that the high-alumina chromites (1, 2, 3, 9), form a cluster well apart from the high-Cr2O3 chromites. There is a tendency for high-iron chromites to be higher in Fe2O3 + TiO2 but it is not a consistent or systematic relationship. The MgO/RO ratio must also be known to characterize the chromite chemically. Simplest and most convenient method is Thayer's' in which a chromite such as (Mg.65Fe.352+)O.(Cr.40Al.50Fe.103+)203 would be written as (Mge,) Cr eAlo. The molecular pro- portions of ferrous and ferric oxides can be seen at a glance as the divalent and trivalent oxides]

Jan 1, 1960

By D. C. Hilty, W. Crafts

The solubility of oxygen in iron containing aluminum has been determined at 1550°, 1600°, and 1650°C and found to be much higher than predicted from theoretical considerations, possibly due to equilibria with an iron-aluminum spinel phase rather than pure AI,O.. The presence of manganese greatly increased the deoxidizing power of aluminum. DEOXIDATION and inclusion formation in steel have proved to be elusive phenomena that are difficult to control in spite of much effort to understand and evaluate the reactions. Study of the problem indicated that more accurate data on the solubility of oxygen in iron containing deoxidizers were essential to further progress, and an empirical determination of oxygen solubilities has been initiated at the Union Carbide and Carbon Research Laboratories, Inc. The investigation has included the effects of aluminum, silicon, manganese, and combinations of these elements at 1550°, 1600°, and 1650°C. The equipment and experimental procedure as well as the results of a study of the effects of aluminum are described below. In general, it was found that the solubility of oxygen in iron containing aluminum is much higher than predicted, possibly because of the formation of complex nonmetallic phases, and that manganese greatly increases the deoxidizing power of aluminum. The generally accepted deoxidation curves for 1600°C are summarized in fig. 1, from "Basic Open Hearth Steelmaking"'. These curves are assumed to represent the solubility of oxygen in the presence of deoxidizers and should indicate the limits of mis-cibility gaps in the phase diagrams of the systems that control the formation and character of non-metallic inclusions as described by Benedicks and Lofquist'. They were derived mainly by application of the methods of thermodynamics to the available experimental observations, and by calculations based on the thermal constants of the pure substances when experimental data were lacking. Among the more notable researches contributing to the development of knowledge of oxygen solubilities are those of Korber and Oelsen8, 4, C. H. Herty, Jr. and associates5,6, Krings and Schackmann7, Went-rup and Hieber8 Schenck and Briiggeman9, Vacher and Hamilton'" and Chipman and co-authors 1,11,12,13 Practically, the deoxidation curves are of limited value in predicting oxygen content and rationalizing deoxidation practices. The reasons for this inadequacy appear to be error from inaccurate data, oversimplifying assumptions, interacting effects of combined deoxidizers, and possibly unknown extra-equilibrium and side reactions. Although inclusion formation is a very complex reaction it must be re-

Jan 1, 1951

By Waldemar Dyrssen

I CANNOT agree with the results obtained by the committee. The gas obtained per pound of coal is too high in calorific value and the amount of gas is too large. It should require about 190 cu. ft. of oxygen per 1000 cu. ft. of gas and not 75.14 cu. ft. as is given on page 35 of the report, or about 2.5 as much. Calculating the calorific value per pound of coal from the coal analysis given on page 34, according to Dulong's formula, the gross and net calorific heat are about 12,890 and 12,430 B.t.u., respectively, which is about 18,600 and 17,900 B.t.u., respectively, per pound of carbon in the coal. This is an unusually high figure, as ordinary bituminous coal has less than 18,000 gross B.t.u. per pound of carbon. Assuming, however, that the calorific values calculated are correct, the following results are obtained. On page 35, the net calorific heat in the gas per pound of coal is given as 12,856 B.t.u. and calculation for the gross value shows it to be about 13,950; in other words, the gas contains (13,950 - 12,890) ÷ 12,890 = 8.2 per cent. more heat than the coal on a gross basis and (12,856 - 12,430) ÷ 12,430 = 3.4 per cent. more on a net basis. The calculated amount of carbon in this gas per pound of coal gasified is about 0.688 lb., or nearly the same as in the coal (0.6972) and the gross and net calorific heat per pound of carbon in the gas are 20,300 and 18,710 B.t.u. which are 9.1 and 4.5 per cent. more than for the carbon in the coal. These calculations show that the results given in the report cannot be correct. There must always be some heat losses in the gasification of coal, in radiation from the producer, and in sensible heat in the gas; there must be some loss of carbon in ashes and in soot, and there are always tarry vapors in the gases that are condensed and do not appear in the fixed gases. From the excessive heat in gas per pound of carbon contained therein, it can also be concluded that the percentage of hydrogen in the gas is too high, from which it follows that the moisture decomposed is too high and that more free oxygen must be used.

Jan 11, 1924

By William J. Harris, Morris Cohen

INTRODUCTION THE recent application of lineal analysis1,2 to the austenite-martensite reaction has made possible a quantitative study of the kinetics of this transformation during rapid cooling. Martensite range curves can thus be constructed to portray the onset of the reaction at [M.] and its subsequent progress as a function of temperature down to and below the ambient. It now seems in order to investigate other aspects of the martensite transformation, using this quantitative method of approach. One of the least understood characteristics of the austenite-martensite reaction is that of stabilization which has been defined by Troiano and Greninger3 as "a lowering of [M.], resulting from aging, without change in chemical composition of the parent solid solution." In other words, if the hardening quench is arrested at a predetermined subcritical temperature (Th) for a sufficient period of time, more austenite may be retained at a given lower or reference temperature (Tr) than if the steel had been cooled directly and rapidly to Tr in the first place. For the purposes of the work at hand, the extent of stabilization produced by the isothermal treatment at Th, is measured explicitly in terms of the excess austenite [(S)] that exists in the steel at Tr, over and above the amount that is normally present after direct quenching to Tr. Tr is conveniently taken to be room temperature, but this choice is not essential and is sometimes undesirable. The holding temperature (Th) may be above or below [M], and still cause stabilization depending upon the chemistry of the austenite. Stabilization has been found to occur in the presence of bainite4 and of martensite5,6,7,8 as well as in the absence of either.9 The phenomenon of stabilization is not concerned with (and may even be obscured by) ferrite formation or any other type of phase change occurring at Th that alters the chemistry of the remaining austenite. Such a structural change would obviously influence the martensite transformation during subsequent cooling. Stabilization, however, is more subtle; it appears to manifest itself without detectable variation of the austenite composition, whether in the presence or absence of transformation products. There are relatively few direct references to stabilization in the literature. The stabilizing effect of room temperature aging and tempering on the subzero transformation of retained austenite has been clearly shown in plain carbon,6.8 low alloy 6.7.8 and high alloy tool steels.10,5 Starting with the as-hardened steel, the degree of stabilization increases with tempering time and temperature through

Jan 1, 1948

By W. R. Opie

The object of this paper is to show the manner in which typical electrodeposits of hexagonal-close-packed metals—zinc, titanium, and zirconium—tend to form. The conditions of electrodeposi-tion markedly affect the nature of the deposits in regard to crystal size, orientation, and appearance. No attempt is made to correlate cell conditions with deposit quality but, rather, characteristic types of deposits were selected and a study made to show the relationship between outward appearance and crystal structure. The zinc deposits were made in aqueous electrolytes and the titanium and zirconium deposited from fused salt baths. ZINC deposits studied were made in the American Smelting and Refining Co.'s Central Research Laboratories. They were representative of bright, shiny, smooth deposits, which can be obtained by using proper current densities and electrolyte addition agents, and of deposits which are dull and tend to be nodular. Four deposits were selected which ranged from smooth and bright to very nodular and dull, and their classifications are shown in Table I. These were examined microscopically and were found to differ quite markedly in outward surface structure and in microstructure. The outward surface variation is illustrated in Figs. 1 to 4. At X50 the texture could be seen to progress from granular to platelike to smooth. The microstructures of the deposits' cross sections from starting sheet to outer surface are shown in Figs. 5 through 8. The dull nodular deposits (sample Nos. 1 and 2) show some tendency for acicular growth. The platelike sample (No. 3) shows tendency for columnar growth development and the smooth deposit (No. 4) has a well developed columnar structure. Back-reflection X-ray patterns of the deposit surfaces revealed some interesting information. The crystal orientation was random in all deposits except the smooth deposit. Fig. 9 is a typical back-reflection pattern of a nodular deposit. All planes are reflecting in the proper relative intensity. The pattern of the smooth deposit is shown in Fig. 10. The only planes which reflect are the (10.4). This series of planes is in the right position, with the FeKa radiation used, to satisfy the Bragg equation if the basal planes {00.1) are at right angles to the X-ray beam. The results were interpreted to mean that in the bright smooth deposit preferred orientation has occurred with the basal hexagonal planes oriented in the plane of the sheet but with all other planes randomly oriented around the c-axis.

Jan 1, 1957

By O. Vartianen, R. T. Hukki

A preliminary investigation of the collecting effects of various fatty acids in tall oil has led to a conclusion that the collecting power of fatty acids used in flotation increases with increasing un- saturation of the hydrocarbon chain. Linoleic acid was found to be an excellent collector for oxide minerals. TALL oil is a mixture of fatty and resin acids extracted as byproducts in the sulphate pulp industry. In the field of flotation a well-known example of this type of product is Reagent No. 708 of the American Cyanamid Co. Its successful use as a flotation collector with many nonsulphide minerals has been described by Falconer and Crawford.' The composition of crude tall oil varies within wide limits.' " By a number of methods the crude oil may be refined to produce a variety of refined products. This investigation presents a preliminary comparative study of collecting properties of the fatty acids in tall oil. In Finnish tall oils these constituents are primarily palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids.:' The first is a saturated fatty acid having 15 carbon atoms in its hydrocarbon chain, plus one in the carboxyl group. The others have 17-carbon-atom chains and are unsaturated. It is of particular interest to note that palmitic, oleic, lino-leic, and linolenic acids represent increasing degrees of unsaturation with 0, 1, 2, and 3 double bonds, respectively. To test the collecting properties of the four fatty acids separately, the vacuum flotation technique described by Schuhmann and Prakash4 was used. By this method the boundary between flotation and non-flotation conditions was approximately delineated, with the use of ilmenite and several other minerals. Collector concentration and pH were the principal variables. On the basis of information obtained, actual flotation tests were run on an ilmenite-bear-ing ore in a laboratory flotation cell. Through the courtesy of P. Kajanne from the Department of Chemistry, Finland Institute of Technology, the following reagents were obtained for this investigation: 1—Palmitic acid, of Judex, had a purity of 95 pct as determined by parallel iodo-metric and spectrophotometric measurements. 2— Oleic acid, product of May and Baker Ltd., indicated purity of 98 pct. By iodometric and spectrophoto-metric determinations the oleic acid content was found to be 83.8 pct. In addition, it contained 6 pct linoleic, 1 pct linolenic, and 9.2 pct saturated fatty acids.' 3—Linoleic acid was prepared from soybean oil by low-temperature crystallization. Its linoleic acid content was 95 pct by the methods indicated above. 4—Linolenic acid was prepared from linseed oil by low temperature crystalIization. Its linolenic

Jan 1, 1954

By Park Wright

The fact that granite has been encountered by the drill by those in search of oil and gas in Kansas is becoming more and more a matter of interest, not only to the oil producer but to everyone directly and indirectly connected with the oil business. It is, therefore, time that someone should offer an explanation for its presence and form a definite opinion, based on all the data available, in regard to the effect it will have on the future prospects of the area affected as probable oil-and gas-producing territory. At present there seems to be no consensus of opinion. To the writer's knowledge, only one attempt has been made to explain ; by Erasmus Haworth, State Geologist of Kansas, in a paper entitled Bulletin Number Two on Crystalline Rocks in Kansas. The purpose of the present paper is to offer a theory for the presence of the granite, and to draw conclusions which will aid in determining the prospective oil and gas value of the area in question. In taking up this question it will be well to consider first the tests in which granite has been reported, with a general history of each. The accompanying map (Fig. 1) shows the location of all wells described. The first well in which granite was reported was that drilled just south of Zeandale in section 27, township 10 south, range 9 east, by a local company which had taken up a block of leases in that vicinity. At a depth of 958 ft. (291.99 m.) granite was encountered. Drilling was continued to a depth of 1093 ft. (333 m.) in the same formation, at which depth the hole was abandoned. Another well was started 1 mile east of the first well and the same rock was found at a depth of 945 ft. (288 m.). Drilling was continued to a depth of 1200 ft. (365.76 m.) with the bit in the same formation. Samples of the drill cuttings have been examined and they are undoubtedly crushed granite. The next well in which granite was found was that drilled by DeLaat and Shepard, independent wildcat operators, in section 34, township 19 south, range 7 east, near the town of Elmdale. Granite was struck at 1707 ft. (520 m.) and the hole was abandoned in the same formation at 2525 ft. (769 m.). Mr. DeLaat watched the drilling of this well very closely and he has described to me in some detail the formation immedi-

Jan 1, 1918

department, first as a practical miner, next. as rodman on the survey corps, of which he soon became chief, then draftsman and mining engineer in the company's office. In January, 1916, he was promoted to the position of district engineer in charge of mining engineering work. He became a member of this Institute in September, 1917. Captain Ba.llamy's military experience began at the same time as his engineering practice. He was a charter member of Company A, Engineers, N. G. P., which was organized ten years ago. He saw service on the Mexican border as First Lieutenant of this Company, and remained in that position until November, 1916. In July, 1917, he was again called into service and was sent to Camp Hancock, Ga., with the 103d Regiment of Engineers. Before joining this regiment he attended a school for officers at Fort Sill, Okla., where he received special training in field fortifications. In December, 1917, he was commissioned Topographical Captain on the Regimental Staff, and in April, 1918, preceded his regiment by about six weeks to France, where he again attended an officers' training school. He rejoined his regiment on July 15, near Chateau Thierry and was killed near Fismes on Aug. 9, 1918. Lieutenant Martin F. Bowles Martin F. BOWleS, born Apr. 25, 1893, at Bonne Terre, Mo., and graduated from the Neodesha, Kans., High School, had finished all but one month of a four-year course in metallurgical engineering at the Missouri School of Mines, Rolla, Mo., when on May 12, 1917, he entered the first Officers' Training Camp at Fort Riley, Kans. At the close of the training period, he was commissioned a Sccond Lieutenant and assigned to Co. B, 355th Infantry, 89th Division, and stationed at Camp Funston. He left this camp with his company on May 21, 1918, and sailed from an eastern port on June 4, ayriving in England on June 15, 1918. After a short stay at a rest camp there, he proceeded to France. On August 14, he wrote that he was with Battalion Headquarters as Gout Officer, 1st Battalion, 355th Infantry, 89th Division. The last letter received from him, dated September 2, was written in his dugout and contained the following: "Here it is 2.45 a. M. Sitting in a dugout waiting for some patrols to report back in, I am writing this by the light of two candles." He was killed in action on the night of Sept. 3, 1918. The letter of notifi-

Jan 1, 1920

By R. D. Reiswig

An increasing amount of high-temperature metall~?~gical research is carried out in resistively heated tube furnaces in which a bare specimen is suspended by a fine wire at the midpoint of the tube. It is shown that the assumption of near-blackbody conditions on the surface of the sample may give rise to errors in optical pyrometry of 50°C or more. A number of papers published in the metallurgical literature in recent years have described the use of high-temperature tube furnaces for heat treatments, melting-point determinations, and other work. Typically, the tube is of a refractory metal with open ends, is heated by the passage of an electric current, and has concentric cylindrical radiation shields outside it. In at least one of these,' the specimen is contained within a crucible having a small hole in its lid through which optical-pyrometer measurements are made under essentially blackbody conditions. In another design,* the specimen is inside a muffle which is concentric with the heater tube and which contains a number of washerlike longitudinal radi- ation shields to reduce axial temperature gradients and to give conditions near the specimen closer to those of a black cavity. Yet another design3 employs a wire specimen coaxial with the heater tube. Blackbody conditions are simulated by passing current from a separate supply through the wire until it "disappears" against the background (the inside of the heater tube) as seen through a radial spy hole in the tube. Good agreement with known melting points is achieved when an optical pyrometer is used under such disappearance conditions as the melting point is approached. That this latter method works so well is due, evidently, to considerations such as those mentioned by Dike4 and others.5-8 A more common method than the above, however, has been the suspension of an uncovered specimen by a fine wire in a resistively heated tube with open ends. A radial spy hole about midway between the ends of the tube permits optical-pyrometer observations on the specimen, the inside of the tube, or both. So observed, the specimen typically appears to differ but little in brightness temperature from the inside of the tube. According to De vos9 the radiation from such a spy hole in an empty tube of reasonable 1ength:diameter ratio (e.g., 10 or greater) should be essentially blackbody radiation. For these reasons, apparently, descriptions of work carried out in such furnaces usually include a statement to the effect that conditions surrounding

Jan 1, 1964

By Earl G. Alexander, W. R. Runyan

The nature of silicon growths which form on amorphous silicon dioxide during epitaxial deposition in unmasked areas was investigated. Octahedral silicon crystals nucleate and grow on the oxide at pinholes, adjacent to foreign matter, and probably at oxygen-deficient sites. Generation of these oxygen-deficient sites on the oxide surface is shown to be thermody-namically favorable under usual deposition conditions. The conditions which affect saturation (SiCl4 concentration, flow rate, temperature) determine the number of sites on which silicon will nucleate and grow. Reaction product HCl is likely responsible for suppressing silicon growths on the oxide near exposed areas of silicon. Evidence is given that the oxide-silicon interaction occurs in hydrogen only and involves water as a transport agent. SINCE shortly after the first epitaxial layers of silicon and germanium were grown over large areas, efforts have been underway to grow selectively on specified portions of the surface. Such selective growth should be particularly applicable to monolithic integrated circuits. Usually the approach has been to use a mask to delineate the desired area,'-7 but the VLS methoda can also be used, and direct programmed atomic beam deposition has been suggested.9 The masking techniques may embody two forms: in one the mask is a material which can later be removed along with any growths attached to it; in the other, attempts are made to prevent growth on the mask, so that over a whole slice the only deposition that will occur is in the unmasked regions. The present work is concerned with only the latter case, and specifically with silicon. Joyce and Baldrey1 suggested the use of thermally grown silicon dioxide as a mask material and showed that for the proper choice of operating conditions (total flow, SiCl4 concentration, total deposition time, and temperature) spurious growth could be minimized and that if the deposition times were not too large, and the criteria not too stringent, a usable process occurred. Later Schnable et al 4 observed that after extended deposition times, during which most of the silicon dioxide became covered with growth, there was always a band of oxide around the exposed silicon area that was quite free of spurious silicon crystallites. This latter observation is particularly intriguing since it extends the hope that with proper precautions masking can be much more versatile than it presently is. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Silicon substrates oriented to within 1.5 deg of a (111) plane were prepared by etch polishing lapped

Jan 1, 1967

By C. E. Nelson, T. E. Leontis

THE properties and casting characteristics of sand-cast Mg-Al-Zn alloys, used commercially in this country and abroad, have been discussed in a number of articles during the past few years.'-" In addition, broad surveys of many compositions in the magnesium corner of the Mg-Al-Zn diagram between 0 and 12 pct A1 and 0 and 6 pct Zn have been presented by Busk and Marande7 and by Fox." The purpose of this paper is to furnish a comprehensive survey of the changes in tensile properties, micro-structure, and dimensional stability of two magnesium alloys, AZ92A and AZ63A,+ as a function of aging time and temperature after solution heat treatment. Rates of precipitation in Mg-Al-Zn alloys are slow enough so that a substantially homogeneous, supersaturated solid solution can be maintained even when these alloys are air-cooled from the heat-treating temperature. Consequently, even though it has been demonstrated9 10 that significantly higher strengths can be developed in some alloys in the aged condition by quenching rather than air cooling from the heat-treating temperature, general practice is to air-cool magnesium alloys. All the work discussed in this paper is based, therefore, on aging studies performed on material air-cooled from the heat-treating temperature. This investigation was intended to be a study of commercially practical aging cycles; the tensile properties were determined, therefore, up to aging times of 25-hr duration. The alloys, used in this investigation were prepared in the laboratory by remelting commercial ingots of the appropriate composition according to the procedures described in a previous paper" as the "crucible method." All melts were given the standard superheating treatment in order to insure the maintenance of a uniform grain size of 0.003 to 0.004 in. Standard test bars, 61/2 in. long with a 2½ in. long reduced section having a diameter of Y2 in., were cast from these melts in green-sand molds using a four-bar pattern. The alloys were heat treated according to the following schedules: AZ92A alloy: 500" to 780°F in 2 hr + 780°F (24 hr) AZ63Aalloy: 500" to740°Fin2 hr + 740°F (16hr) In commercial practice," AZ92A alloy is heat treated at 770°F for 18 hr and AZ63A alloy is heat treated at 730°F for 10 hr. The slightly higher temperatures and longer periods of heat treatment were used in order to obtain as homogeneous a solid solution as possible and thus to minimize inconsistencies in the

Jan 1, 1952

By E. DeGolyer

The only known direct method of discovering oil deposits is by the drilling of test wells. Such exploration is always hazardous and generally very costly. The problem of the prospector, therefore, is to select test sites that are favorably located and so to reduce the odds against his venture. Early in the history of the oil industry, it was realized that oil and gas deposits, other conditions being favorable, were usually found in anticlinal types of structure. This very undestandable and rational habit of occurrence furnished the first substantial clue to the prospector. Oil occurs in sedimentary rocks, and beds of such rocks are deposited originally in approximately parallel layers. An anticline at the surface, therefore, could be accepted as an indication of an anticline in lower beds. Structural geology became the tool of the prospector, and by its use in the past two decades the majority of the known important oil deposits of the world have been discovered. This is but a partial, and the simplest, statement of the problem, Nine-tenths and more of the important oil pools of the world belong to the great class of accumulations controlled by structural traps—anti-clines, faulted structures, salt domes, etc.—but by no means all of these structures are clearly or adequately expressed at the surface. As the more obvious anticlines were explored and the search for new deposits led to the testing of progressively deeper beds, it became more and more apparent that marked favorable structures involving petroliferous rocks can, and do, exist without any marked surface expression. There are great areas where the surface, covered by some masking material such as water, alluvium, glacial deposits, or sand dunes, affords no clue to structural conditions in the subsurface, and there are also regions where the surface formations are unconformable with the oil-bearing formations. The structure in which the prospector is fundamentally interested is that of the oil-bearing formation itself, together with roof and floor beds. No other geologic information is of interest or importance to him except as it affords clues to the stratigraphy and structure of the supposed oil-bearing formations.

Jan 1, 1932

By P More

US 4,132,621-In the electrowinning of aluminum, the cells are aligned in a lengthwise direction so as to lessen the harmful influence of the induced magnetic fields Each cell is supplied with current from the preceding cell both via the head arid at least one side riser The output of the cathode bars is divided into two separate groups, the upstream group supplying the head of the subsequent cell arid the downstream group supplying the side risers of the subsequent cell This produces a substantial improvement in cell efficiency arid a greater regularity P Morel, J P Dugois, arid B Langon, assigned to Aluminium Pechiney. Jan 2, 1979 12 pp. (204¬243M) Filed 1-12-78 (868,861) Priority: France, 1-19-77 (77/2,213) US 4,134,806-Cells, anodes, arid methods for use in the electrowinning of nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, or other metals from an acid ore leach solution or the like The cell is provided with vertically immersed stationary cathodes and stationary rod anodes which are noncorrodible by the electrolyte arid are electrocatalytic to the anode reaction. The spaced parallel anode rods are connected to electric current supply bars The anode rods have an electroconductive core made of a metal alloy arid a surface coating of an oxide of platinum or a platinum group metal The ratio of active cathode surface area to active anode surface area is preferably at least 3 0. De Nora arid C Traini, assigned to Diamond Shamrock Tech¬nologies, SA Jan 16, 1979 13 pp. (204-105R) Filed 9-15-77 (833,661) Priority Italy, 1-29-73 (19738 A/73). Same British 1,434,334-5, dated May 5, 1976 US 4,135,994-In the electrowinning of aluminum at a high current efficiency, the electrolytic bath is a mixed molten salt consisting of 2-15% by weight of aluminum trichloride, 15-83% of sodium chloride, 15-70% of combined calcium chloride arid magnesium chloride but riot more than 40% of calcium chloride, arid optionally up to 10% of barium chloride Preferably, plate-shaped graphite electrodes used for both cathodes and anodes are arranged in parallel inclined relation so that the axis in the lengthwise direction makes an angle of from 10° to 45° to the horizontal. T Ishikawa arid H Ichikawa, assigned to Nippon Light Metal Co Ltd Jan 23, 1979 4 pp (204-67) Filed 11-15-77(851,632) Same British 1,550,502, dated Aug 15, 1979

Jan 1, 1980