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By Rosewell H. Johnson

Discussion of the paper of ROSWELL H. JOHNSON, presented it the San Francisco meeting, September, 1915, And printed in Bulletin No. 102, June, 1915, pp. 1291 to 1294. WILLIAM A. WILLIAMS, San. Francisco, CaI.-A sliding. scale of royalties was proposed to the Department of the Interior in connection with the fixing of royalties to be charged upon oil leases made on the Osage Reservation in Oklahoma. The possibility of evasion and difficulty of enforcement required close inspection to satisfy all interests, particularly in connection with the exemption from royalty on oil to equal maintenance and interest on the junk. Mr. Johnson discusses the block method, the period method, and the cumulative method, and favors the adoption of the cumulative method with a proviso that the wells should be permitted to be pumped until the gross income is as low as the maintenance cost, which would mean exemption from royalty on the smallest wells. He recommends that depth be the variable factor upon which the sliding royalty is based and suggests that on partially developed territory in the Osage, the royalty be one-sixth for oil wells averaging less than 2,000 ft. in depth, one-eighth for wells from 2,000 to 3,000 ft., and one-twelfth above 3,000 ft.; for the rest of the Osage he suggests one-eighth above 2,800 ft. and one-twelfth below that depth. The net result, if Mr. Johnson's suggestions had been accepted in the Osage, would have been to reduce the then existing rate of royalty and considerably increase the cost of administration. The difficulties in determining the size of wells to be exempt and the possibility of obtaining oil at different depths in the same well might lead to complications which are avoided by charging a flat royalty as now universally charged throughout the United States. It is not uncommon to reduce the royalty when the production of the wells becomes unprofitable at an existing rate of royalty, accomplishing very much the same results as Mr. Johnson has attempted to accomplish by the cumulative royalties, and probably in a manner far more satisfactory to the operator and the lessor. A. C. MCLAUGHLIN, San Francisco, Cal.-The net revenue of the well depends, first, on the cost of production; second, on the amount of oil produced; therefore it would be impossible under Mr. Johnson's system to set a royalty which would be fair to all concerned. If it is impossible to set it at the beginning, it is certainly further impossible to do it from day to clay. I think it is entirely impracticable of application.

Jan 12, 1915

By E. M. Wise

THe properties required of gold alloys for jewelry are not well standardized, due in part to problems peculiar to certain branches of the jewelry industry, in part to the individual preference of the fabricator and to his willingness to cope with certain difficulties in manufacture, which arise with the use of certain alloys. General Requirements In general, the properties desired may be classed as follows: 1. Color should conform to the dictates of good taste and smart style. 2. Corrosion resistance and tarnish resistance should he good. This is to a considerable extent determined by the carat. Resistance to such corrosive agents as mercuric chloride as well as certain depi1atories is unreasonable to expect and difficult to meet. 3. Strength and hardness must be adequate to maintain the delicate contours of finely modeled jewelry. 4. Wear resistance must be great enough to resist abnormal wear, such as is encountered by a wedding ring in a lifetime of wear. 5. Ductility must be sufficient to permit the fabrication of drawn shells, tubes and difficult shapes. Material having a yield point of not less than 60,000 lb. per sq. in., an ultimate strength of 100,000 Ib. per sq. in., and an elongation of 40 per cent. is desirable. 6. Melting point should be between 800" and 1200" C. Colored Golds The popular green and yellow golds are based on the gold-silver-copper alloys; in some cases modified by the introduction of zinc to improve the casting properties and to alter the color, and nickel to increase the strength. The properties of the Au-Ag-Cu system have been the subject of a very thorough investigation by Jänecke,l Sterner-Rainer12 and Carter."

Jan 1, 1929

By E. M. Wise

THe properties required of gold alloys for jewelry are not well standardized, due in part to problems peculiar to certain branches of the jewelry industry, in part to the individual preference of the fabricator and to his willingness to cope with certain difficulties in manufacture, which arise with the use of certain alloys. General Requirements In general, the properties desired may be classed as follows: 1. Color should conform to the dictates of good taste and smart style. 2. Corrosion resistance and tarnish resistance should he good. This is to a considerable extent determined by the carat. Resistance to such corrosive agents as mercuric chloride as well as certain depi1atories is unreasonable to expect and difficult to meet. 3. Strength and hardness must be adequate to maintain the delicate contours of finely modeled jewelry. 4. Wear resistance must be great enough to resist abnormal wear, such as is encountered by a wedding ring in a lifetime of wear. 5. Ductility must be sufficient to permit the fabrication of drawn shells, tubes and difficult shapes. Material having a yield point of not less than 60,000 lb. per sq. in., an ultimate strength of 100,000 Ib. per sq. in., and an elongation of 40 per cent. is desirable. 6. Melting point should be between 800" and 1200" C. Colored Golds The popular green and yellow golds are based on the gold-silver-copper alloys; in some cases modified by the introduction of zinc to improve the casting properties and to alter the color, and nickel to increase the strength. The properties of the Au-Ag-Cu system have been the subject of a very thorough investigation by Jänecke,l Sterner-Rainer12 and Carter."

Jan 1, 1929

By P. D. Frost, H. A. Robinson, J. R. Doig, M. W. Mote

The mechanism of hardening in heat-treatable zirconium alloys was foUNd to be analogous to that for titanium alloys. Zirconium containing a relatively large addition of a ß -stabilizing element such as molybdenum or columbium can be hardened by the following transformation: Lean alloys, having insufficient alloy content to retain ß at room temperature are hardened by the following transformation: Application of these findings in Zr-Mo-Sn and Zr-Nb-Sn alloys produced strengths as high as 190,000 psi with reasonable ductility. PRIOR research on zirconium alloys has been concerned with development of greater strengths and creep resistance by solid-solution hardening or by dispersion hardening. Although solution and aging heat treatments had been applied earlier to zirconium alloys, quenching frequently produced low ductility. The possibility that the ß-to-w transformation, discovered earlier in titanium alloys,' might also occur in zirconium alloys and cause low ductility was considered, and, indeed, was found as predicted2 to be the case. In the earliest experiments, the heat-treatment response of titanium, too, was disappointing. However, by avoiding the formation of the embrittling w phase, it became practical to obtain room-temperature strengths higher than 180,000 psi, with elongation values of 10 pct.3 Based on the present concept of titanium heat treatment, the principal requirement for a heat-treatable zirconium alloy is that it contains a certain minimum amount of one or more ß -stabilizing elements. Only molybdenum, columbium, and tantalum, when present in sufficient amounts, are known to stabilize ß zirconium to room temperature during rapid cooling from the ß field. Tantalum was undesirable because of its high thermal-neutron cross section. Aluminum and tin are effective a stabilizers, but aluminum has been shown to seriously decrease the corrosion resistance of simple zirconium alloys in hot water. Therefore, for the present study, tin was used as the stabilizer addition. The alloys selected for this evaluation are presented in Table 1 along with their analyses and ß-transus temperatures. The analyses indicated that intended compositions were usually realized. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES All of the alloys were melted from sponge zirconium and fabricated to sheet for heat treatment

Jan 1, 1960

By W. E. Hale, G. J. S. Govett

An orientation survey was conducted over a known disseminated copper deposit and a Au-Cu vein deposit and employed geological, geophysical, and geochemical methods. Geochemical techniques proved the most effective and economical means of locating and defining areas underlain by these types of mineralization. Six additional, widely separated occurrences were also investigated and mineralization was confirmed by determination of cold-extractable copper in stream sediments. The length of anomalous drainage varies from several to 16 km and depends on the type and tenor of mineralization. Despite generally marked relief and extreme physical and chemical weathering, cold-extractable copper anomalies in soils appear to reflect closely variations in the ore mineral content of immediately underlying rocks. Threshold values vary with local geological conditions and type and grade of mineralization. Significant thresholds in stream sediments are about 65 ppm and 10 ppm for cold-extractable copper in disseminated and vein copper occurrences respectively. Similar differences are encountered in soils. This necessitates the use of a scale of threshold values at progressive stages in each exploration program. Dis-seminated copper occurrences are presently the major source of mineral production m the Philippines. Much potentially productive ground remains to be investigated and applied geochemistry appears to offer the best available approach. The Institute of Applied Geology (I.A.G.), a joint project sponsored by the University of the Philippines, the Philippine Bureau of Mines and the United Nations Development Program (Special Fund) undertook during 1965-66 a number of field projects in Northern Luzon Island (Fig. 1). These field operations were of a two-fold nature and involved both orientation and exploration. During approximately six weeks, an orientation survey, involving geological mapping, geophysical surveying and geochemical prospecting, was conducted over a partly developed, disseminated copper deposit at Santo Nino (Fig. 1). This study demonstrated the economic and technical feasibility of geochemical ptospecting, relative to the other methods tested, for the location and delineation of a typical disseminated copper occurrence characteristic of those that represent the major source of metal in the Philippines.' Geochemical techniques, similar to those tested at Santo Nino, were then applied in a second orientation study of a vein occurrence at Suyoc (Fig. 1). The results of these two orientation studies suggest that, in reconnaissance work in this region, stream sediment analyses, combined with the determination of pH in the same streams, can be used to indicate areas underlain by rock containing anomalous concentrations of copper, whether it occurs in the large tonnage, low grade, disseminated deposits or in the comparatively small tonnage, higher grade, gold vein occurrences. Furthermore, the orientation surveys demonstrate that soil sampling and analysis serve effectively to outline more closely the mineralized zones within the generally anomalous areas identified from the stream reconnaissance. To further test the methods selected from the two earlier trials, six additional, widely separated prospects were investigated. The geological and geochem-

Jan 1, 1970

THE paper on "Specific Efficiency of the Blast Furnace" by Richard Franchot, which was pub-lished in the September issue of MINING AND METALLURGY, was presented for discussion at the Pitts-burgh meeting. The session opened with a discussion among S. P. Kinney, Mr. Franchot, and J. N. Reese as to the methods and results in sampling for cyanides in the blast furnace. This is covered in detail in writ-ten discussion below. T. T. Read objected to the use of the term specific efficiency as likely to be confusing. The blast furnace has to perform the function of reducing Fe, 03 to Fe as well as that of fusing the metal and, since the reduc-tion of Fe, 0? involves a CO equilibrium, it seems mis-leading to calculate efficiency on the basis of burning the , all carbon to CO? since it is not possible. Mr. Franchot replied that he used the term in the sense defined by Richards in his "Metallurgical Calculations;" but a subsequent search failed to reveal the term in Richards, who says (page 245, 1st edition): The practical conclusion is that a blast furnace generates in itself not much over 40 per cent of the calorific power of the fuel used, and rejects nearly 60 per cent; by using part of the waste gases to heat the blast, however, some of this rejected heat, to an amount representing net 5 to 10 per cent of the calorific power of the fuel used, is returned to and injected bodily into the furnace, thus rendering available for the purpose of running the furnace about 50 per cent of the calorific power of the fuel as a maximum. The efficiency with which the furnace applies this 50 per cent usefully to the objects of the reducing and smelting is another question for investigation.

Jan 2, 1927

By L. E. Mannion

Sodium carbonate (soda ash) is one of two principal commercial alkalis. Its principal competitor is sodium hydroxide. The use of sodium carbonate is recorded in ancient Egypt, where naturally occurring brines and solid salts provided impure soda for early glassmaking. Until the 19th century, soda ash (as well as potash) was recovered mainly by leaching wood or other plant ashes. In 18th-century Europe, for example, leaching seaweed ash with hot water produced a brown laundry lye. One of the better grades of this material was a Spanish product, barilla, which analyzed 24 to 30% Na2CO3 (Hou, 1942). The modern chemical industry was born in 1691 with the LeBlanc process for making sodium carbonate from salt, sulfuric acid, and lime. English industry used this process extensively in the 17th and 18th centuries. The next major advance was in 1863, when Ernst Solvay devised the ammonia-soda, or Solvay process. The first of many Solvay plants was built in 1874. These supplanted the LeBlanc method and dominated worldwide soda ash production until 1974, when mined sodium carbonate became predominant. Although considerably less important until recently, natural sodium carbonate deposits historically have supported small soda ash operations throughout the world. Shortages during World War II stimulated production of "natural" soda ash from such deposits, particularly at Searles Lake, CA and Lake Magadi, Kenya. More spectacularly, increased production from the vast trona deposits in Wyoming has virtually supplanted the Solvay process in the US. Principal producers of natural soda ash as well as the character of the source deposits are listed in Table 1. [ ]

Jan 1, 1983

By P. R. Gage, R. W. Bartlett

At high temperatues and reduced oxygen pressuves, molybdenum silicicles oxidize to form SiO(g) vathev than a passivating SiO2 film. This is a sevious problem for low-pressure applications of sili-cide-coated rejvactory tnetals. As oxiclalion pvoceeds, the higher oxidntion potential of silicon initially suppresses oxidation of molybdenum and silicon is depleted near the surface. Eventually, silicon depletion causes secondary passivation (SiO2) mid an active to passiue transition in oxidntion behavior at moderately low pressures. At very low pressures, silicon depletion continues until steady-state oxidation of both silicon and rnolyhdenum can proceed at rates propovtional to their initial stoicliiorrzetvies. Ohsel-vations of 'oxidatiou-rate belzcriliov at temperatures from 1101° to 1700°C and oxygen pressures from 10-7 to 1 at in were made using thermogravimetn'c, X-ray diffraction, and elect?*on-rtric?ro/,vobe techniqrres. The experimental results are in good agreement with calculated lirnits for the various types of behavior that were based on tlievtnochernicnl atzd dffusion rate data for the Mo-Si system. A protective oxide film normally forms during the oxidation of elemental silicon. However, at elevated temperatures and reduced pressures this film is not present and oxidation is rapid. wagnerl has shown that this behavior occurs because SiO(g) is more stable than SiO2. The behavior of the silicides at high temperatures is similar but more complicated. Molybdenum and several silicide compounds are involved and the chemical activity of silicon, or the equivalent silicon vapor pressure, can vary considerably in these phases. Also, diffusion in the silicides resulting from reactions in which a higher silicide is reduced to a lower silicide, or molybdenum containing dissolved silicon, must be considered. EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS Isothermal oxidation experiments were conducted using hot-pressed MoSi2 and Mo5Si3 wafers. Each experiment was conducted at a fixed oxygen pressure by controlling the flow of oxygen in and out of the furnace chamber. Most of the experiments were conducted in a molybdenum-wound tube furnace. Special construction features, including use of a high-purity dense A12O3 refractory tube, permitted operation in high vacuum to 1500°C. Higher temperatures could be obtained at higher working pressures and with a sacrifice of tube lifetime. Temperature was measured with three Pt 6 pct Rh/Pt 30 pct Rh thermocouples and controlled with a proportional controller. Weight changes were monitored with a quartz spring balance. The few experiments, at higher temperatures and low pressures, were conducted in a cold wall vacuum chamber using induction heating with direct susceptance of the sample. Because of the variable levitation effect of the induction coil on the sample, weight changes could not be monitored continuously in these experiments. All samples representing both experimental methods were weighed before and after oxidiation and examined with a microscope and analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The analytical treatment assumes equilibrium at interfaces and uses existing thermodynamic data. For convenience, equilibria are expressed as chemical potentials or as vapor pressures of the gases involved. The resulting differences in equilibrium vapor pressure between adjacent interfaces and between the surface and external atmosphere drive diffusion processes in the solid and gas boundary film, respectively. These diffusion processes govern the rate of oxidation. A bibliography of the sources of thermochemical data for the reactions pertinent to the Mo-Si-O system is given in Table I. Reactions are listed with the sources of free-energy data referenced. Since all of these reactions involve one or more gas species, usually oxygen, a plot of the product-gas chemical potential, -RT In Pg, vs absolute temperature for each reaction is given in Fig. 1. These curves can be used to determine equilibrium vapor pressures or to compare the stability of different compounds in the various gases: O2, Si, SiO, and Moo3,. The data of Table I and Fig. 1 were used to determine the analytical results presented in this paper. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS The weight changes for three MoSi, samples oxidized at 1500°C are plotted against time in Fig. 2. The treatments were identical except for the indicated variance of oxygen pressure and each curve represents one of three characteristic types of behavior that were observed. The upper curve is an example of passive oxidation, which is defined as

Jan 1, 1965

By G. R. M. Del Giudice, A. M. Sadler, Arthur F. Taggart, M. Hassialis

FLOTATION of sulphide minerals and native metals is no longer a practical difficulty. The underlying scientific principles of the method, although not explored in anything like complete detail, have been formulated with sufficient breadth so that the direction of attack on any specific case is clearly indicated. It has been known since the earliest days of flotation that certain of the nonsulphide nonmetal minerals-e.g., sulphur and graphite-would respond to flotation by oils as sulphides do; therefore they have been grouped with sulphides in many patents. But since the development of the chemical theory of collection, 1,2,3 this similarity in action has been one of the facts cited in disproof of the theory by opponents of the hypothesis. 4 5-1 Air levitationt of certain oxidized minerals, both metalliferoust and nonmetalliferous, and separation thereby from other oxidized minerals, is a recent development in practice, although the discovery of the method dates back 17 years .7 This paper presents evidence that the principles underlying the air levitation of the nonsulphide nonmetal minerals are the same as those utilized in the flotation of the sulphides and native metals. It will be apparent immediately to anyone with knowledge of mineral concentration that separation of air-levitated minerals in water from minerals not so levitated is a simple matter of water-gravity concentration, the separating device employed depending solely upon the size of the particles treated and the buoyancy differences effected by the levitation. The usual separating means employed are: (1) a flotation machine for fine, slimy and for well aerated granular material; (2) shaking tables for granular less aerated material. By using large quantities of oil, it is possible to form substantially air-free oil-bound masses or granules of nonsiliceous minerals and to

Jan 1, 1937

By W. R. Hibbard

The increased strength of a polycrystal-line metallic aggregate compared with that of its individual crystals generally has been associated with complex stress distributions at the grain boundaries resulting from atomic irregularity between grains. This disregistry, together with the necessity for adjacent crystals to deform compatibly regardless of the single crystal crystallo-graphic strain mechanism, complicates this mechanism so as to increase the metal's resistance to deformation. Although Taylor1 has shown from purely mechanical considerations the requirement for at least five active slip systems to absorb the complexities during the homogeneous deformation of polycrystalline face-centered cubic metals, experimental studies by Barrett and Levenson2 indicate that this is feasible only in a qualitative sense because of deviations from homogeneous deformation. Seitz and Read in their review3 state: " Unfortunately . . . present knowledge of the grain boundary influence is not sufficient to complement the work in single crystals and provide us with a good foundation for treating polycrystals." The purpose of this investigation was to attempt to clarify the gap between single crystals and crystalline aggregates by an analysis of the effects of dcformational stresses. Some of the results were described by C. H. Mathewson in his 1943 Campbell Memorial Lecture.zl Previous Investigations Since the performance of single crystals deformed under pure stresses has been relatively thoroughly investigated, the most significant researches are concerned primarily with deviations from single crystal behavior of large grained specimens. Qualitative grain boundary effects involving the observed amount of slip werc reported by Carpenter and Elam5 in 1921. Individual crystals in a two or three grained aluminum specimen deformed by tension acted in the normal manner described by Taylor and Elarn4 except for marked modifications at the grain boundaries. There the power to withstand deformation was considerably increased, leaving a ridge on the specimen where decreased slip occurred, often noticeable yi in. from the boundary. Adcock,6 Yamaguchi,' Seumel, Hirstg and others have also reported this phenomenon as a qualitative trend. Yet attempts by O'Neill'o and Ljunggrenll to measure a difference in hardness at grain boundaries in undeformed specimens were unsuccessful. Miller12 measured quantitatively the reduction in slip near the boundary between the single crystal and polycrystalline areas of zinc specimens. These effects consisted of two parts: I. Next to the polycrystalline interface thc distribution of stresses was so altered

Jan 1, 1949

The Honor Roll includes the names of all members of the Institute Whom we know to have been on active military duty it the date of compilation, Mar. 5, 1919. Despite our efforts to have this list accurate and complete, some of our members who have been rendering military service are probably left off because of the fact that we have not been informed of their military connection. The list of men in military service has been compiled with great difficulty owing to the modesty of the members, who in their patriotism began their service but neglected to send us notice. In 1918, We published a separate Honor Roll of the Institute in which we included a list entitled "On active duty in other departments of the service" which contained the names of members who were rendering important emergency service to the Government other than in the Army. This list is entirely omitted this year because any list We might compile for this purpose would be entirely inadequate and must inevitably do injustice to a large number of our members who have been devoting great time and making many sacrifices for the benefit of the government along lines not within our ken. It is not too much to say that almost all our membership in this country has been, more or less directly, doing its uttermost for the successful prosecu¬tion of the war. The active work of many of these members we are Well aware of, as is also the rest of the civilized world. Faithful and wholehearted efforts on the part of many other members we have not been informed of, so that any list would be both incomplete and unsatisfactory.

Jan 1, 1923

By William Laird

The predominent method of coal mining in the United States for years has been room-and-pillar mining. The reason for this has been the advantages of room-and- pillar method which is a relatively flexible system and its capital investment. The room-and-pillar method permits some selectivity in mining, especially where gas wells, faults and possible coal quality may be a factor. The mobility of continuous and conventional mining equipment used to develop entries may also be used for retreat mining of rooms and pillars. Longwall mining of coal takes place along a long straight face, or wall, blocked out between two butt or panel entries. The long faces or walls are normally projected in lengths of 61 to 183 m (200 to 600 ft) in this country. The longwall method of mining had its beginning in the United States during the 1800's. During that period, pack wall and wood posts were used for roof support. The longwall face was mined by miners using picks to undercut the coal. To keep the coal face from turning over, short wood posts called sprags were set in a slant position as the coal face was undercut to the depth of two to three feet. When the under-cutting cycle was completed, the sprags were removed to permit the coal to fall from the roof pressure. The longwall mining of coal did not take a firm hold during the 18009s, and room-and-pillar prevailed. In the early 19009s, steel jacks were introduced, and along with it, the modified caving theory. In March of 1950, a retreat longwall mining system, utilizing a plow, manually operated props, wood cribs and chock releases, was installed in one of Eastern Associated Coal Corp.'s mines.

Jan 1, 1981

By A. W. Gauger

Coal as mined contains varying quantities of inorganic components (mineral matter) which, on combustion, produce the residue known as ash. It has long been realized that the weight of this residue does not equal the weight of the mineral matter originally in the coal, because of the chemical changes that take place during the ashing process. Moreover, the ordinary ash analysis presents the ash as a mixture of oxides with little or no clue to the identity of the mineral species originally present in the coal. It is only for pyritic sulfur that an attempt is made to determine a mineral component. So far as the authors are aware, there are practically no experimental data in the literature as to the percentages of the different mineral species present in coal. The oft-quoted table of Marson and Cobb1 cannot rightly be considered as data, since the authors merely state that the table "shows the probable forms in which these ash constituents exist in coal." In view of the attempts to calculate analyses and determinations of the calorific equivalent of coal to the mineral-matter-free basis, as well as the importance of the mineral species in clinkering, combustion and coking, it seems strange that so few data are available on this phase of coal technology. For example, numerous empirical corrections for use in the scientific classification of coal have been suggested to compensate for the losses from the mineral matter during ignition of the coal to ash. These include multiplication of the ash percentage by various factors such as l 1/10 and 156, the use of the Parr unit coal formula (1.08 A + 22/40 S, where S = total sulfur) as well as certain modifications of the Parr formula that attempt to correct for the organic sulfur present in the coal. Although many experiments have been made to determine the loss on ignition of the clays associated with the coal measures and correction

Jan 1, 1934

By G. L. Oldright

THE economic manufacture of sulfuric acid by the ordinary chamber process usually involves production on a large scale and a plant that is costly to construct. The nature of sulfuric acid makes it costly to transport any great distance. For these reasons, the metallurgist has not found it feasible, at times, to beneficiate ores amenable to leaching, and a. need exists for a local process that will produce acid cheaply on a small or large scale. To leach ores containing residual sulfides, an oxidizer, such as ferric sulfate, is needed in solution. Precipitation with scrap iron is one of the cheapest methods of removing some metals from solution, giving a plant of low first cost and supplying a source of cheap ferrous sulfate. The other ingredient needed for the process is SO2 roaster gas; the addition of which, as, described below, will give both ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid. Where roaster gas is a waste or obnoxious, product, the expense. for materials is still further lessened. The use of ferric sulfate and sulfuric acid as a solvent lends itself, well to the utilization of scrap iron as a precipitant, and the stages of the process fit in well together as an economic whole.

Jan 8, 1925

By M. J. Duggin

Structural similarities between the E, X, and iron carbides are illustrated. Experimental evidence regarding phase transformations occurring during ternpering reactions in finely divided carbides, thin-film carbides, and carbides which occur in steels is considered and possible mechanisms for the E — x and x — 9 transformations proposed. HOFER1 has shown that within the appropriate temperature ranges carbon monoxide will react with finely divided a iron to form either iron carbide or x iron carbide. He has shown that at an elevated temperature the E iron carbide will transform to the x iron carbide (Hagg carbide) which, upon further elevation of temperature, will transform to 9 iron carbide (cementite). Jack,2,3 using X-ray diffraction methods, has observed that during the tempering reactions occurring in steel the E iron carbide formed in the first stage of tempering passes into two-dimensional platelets of 0 iron carbide during the second stage of tempering. The three-dimensional form of the 0 carbide is formed during the third stage of tempering. Jack suggested2 that the two-dimensional platelets of 0 carbide could be related to the faulted x iron carbide. Okada and Arata4 investigated a Swedish steel containing 1.05 wt pct C and approximately 1.0 wt pct Mn using permeability measurements at low field strength. A Curie point of 360°C was observed in the quenched steel, which indicated the presence of E iron carbide. On tempering at 400°C the specimen developed a Curie point at 230°C, indicating the presence of x iron carbide, and on tempering at 700°C the specimen developed a Curie point at 190°C which was assigned to 0 iron carbide. The carbides were extracted electro-lytically and the use of X-ray diffraction techniques4r5 indicated the carbide with a Curie point of 230°C to be x iron carbide. The Curie points of the carbides are 10 to 22°C lower than the accepted values which is probably due to the presence of manganese in the carbides, since it has often been observed (e.g., Ref, 6) that a partial substitution of manganese for iron in cementite will lower the Curie point of this carbide. Hofer' summarizes additional evidence of the tempering reactions in steel in which E iron carbide, formed during the first stage of tempering, transforms to x iron carbide during the second stage of tempering. During the third stage of tempering, the x carbide disappears as the 0 carbide is formed. By carburizing thin iron films in a CO gas stream, ~a~akura' has been able to produce the E, X, and 0 iron carbides. He found that below 250°C the E iron carbide was formed; between 250" and 350°C the x iron carbide was formed and above 350°C the 0 iron carbide was formed. He has shown that the E iron carbide transforms to form x iron carbide at 380" to 400°C and that the x ir°n carbide transforms to form the 0 iron carbide at approximately 550" C; both of these phase transformations are irreversible. Hofer' presents a review of evidence to show that the sequence of reactions occurring during tempering processes subsequent to the formation of E iron carbide formed by the direct carburization of finely divided a iron is the same as the sequence of reactions which occur during the tempering processes subsequent to the formation of E iron carbide in steel during the first stage of tempering. It is evident from Nagakura's work that identical tempering reactions are found in thin films of iron which have been carburized to form iron carbide. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the structural similarities between the E, X, and 0 carbides and to suggest a possible mechanism by which regions of the E carbide, formed during the first stage of tempering, may transform to the x carbide during the second stage of tempering. For the finely divided or thin film carbides a mechanism will be proposed for the transformation of the x carbide to the 0 carbide during the third stage of tempering, although it will be suggested that there is evidence that such a transformation may not occur in steels. STRUCTURAL DATA OF THE E, X, AND 0 IRON CARBIDES € Iron Carbide. It is evident from X-ray diffractions and electron diffraction', investigations that the metal atoms in the E iron carbide form an hcp structure with lattice constants ah = 2.752A, ch = 4.3534, using electron diffraction, reports the lattice paramet$rs of the superlattice cell to be a = 4.767A, c = 4.354, c/a = 0.9134. He finds that the carbon atoms occupy the octahedral voids in the metal atom structure so as to form a hexagonal stacking sequence with its basal plane parallel to that of the metal atoms. Considerable long-range disorder occurs in the positioning of the carbon atoms, however, which is in agreement with the possible range of composition Fe2C-Fe3C discussed by Hofer.' Barton and ale" have made X-ray diffraction measurements on a sample of E iron carbide extracted from a catalyst in an organic process. Although there were few reflections recorded on the obtained X-ray powder diffraction pattern, they have proposed that the structure could belong to one of the three possible space groups p3m1, P63/mmc, or Pbcn if one assumed the composition to be Fe2C. Nagakura, using electron diffraction data, suggests a space group of P 6322 for a specimen of c iron carbide of apparent composition Fez.&. x Iron Carbide. The x iron carbide has been studied by Duggin and Hofer" and by Jack and wild,' who

Jan 1, 1969

By R. S. Craig, W. E. Wallace, G. S. Kamath

The destruction of long-range order in Mg-Cd, has previously been thought to occur as a second order process. In the present work a variety of X-ray diffraction techniques are employed to show that in this case and in Mg-Cd alloys containing frorn 20 to 33 1/3 at. pct Mg the process more nearly resembles an ordinary first order phase transformation. It is found that the ordered alloy, which occurs as a single phase at lgw temperatures, transforms with increasing temperature into a Cd-enriched disordered (P) phase and an Mg-enriched ordered (a) phase. The interval over which these two phases coexist under apparently equilibrium conditiovs extends from 25" to 87°C content. At 33 1/3 at. pct Mg the two-phase region has disappeared. Measurement of the long range order parameter, s, for the ordered phase in MgCd, (from superlattice line intensities) shows that it disorders only very slightly before it is transformed into the p form. Kinetic experiments reveal that when the a phase is formed frorn the p phase by suitably quenching so as to suppress phase segregation, the transformation is essentially complete and the a phase has acquired its equilibrium value of S in less than 1 min. In an earlier investigation carried out in this Laboratory1 the rate of disordering of the MgCd3 superlattice was determined over an extensive range of temperature. The process was found to be first order and the rate constant, k, was established. At the lowest temperatures studied k was found to increase exponentially with temperature. At higher temperatures, however, it passed through a maximum and for the 100 deg interval below the point at which the superlattice was destroyed k was observed to decrease with increasing temperature. The various theoretical treatments1-3 of order-disorder phenomena lead to a negative temperature coefficient for k near the superlattice critical temperature but this region for MgCdB seemed unusually wide. Detailed analysis of the point indicated' that either the long-range order parameter, S, for MgCda varied with temperature in an anomalous way or the disordering in this instance is more complex than in the cases which have been treated theoretically. The original objective in the present work was simply to determine S vs temperature for MgCda to ascertain whether the disordering was in conformity with theoretical expectations.2° In an early stage of the work it was noted, however, that under equilibrium conditions ordered (a) and disordered (0) phases coexist in MgCd, over a considerable range of temperature. Since on thermo- dynamic grounds the coexisting phases must differ in composition, the investigation was enlarged to permit the compositions of the two phases in MgCd3 to be determined and to establish the extent of the two phase regions for alloys containing from 20 to 33 1/3 at. pct Cd.

Jan 1, 1963

By T. V. Falkie, D. R. Mitchell

Many operational problems in mine haulage cannot be solved economically by conventional analytic or trial and error methods. However, a method of probabilistic simulation, which is based on the fundamental assumption that many of the variables governing any physical system are probabilistic, has been adapted to certain areas of operations research in coal mine haulage. This paper attempts to illustrate how simulation can be used in basic haulage research and what kind of results can be expected. Optimization in this case is performed in terms of locomotive and car movement, as well as best utilization of men and equipment, and is approached primarily from the standpoint of scheduling of the main haulage. Many operational problems in mine haulage cannot be solved economically by conventional analytic or trial-error methods. However, a method of probabilistic simulation, which is based on the fundamental assumption that many of the variables governing any physical system are probabilistic, has been adapted to certain areas of operations research in mine haulage. In many physical cases several probability distributions interact with each other in special ways, and it is not possible to solve for their combined effect in a mathematical equation. This is often true in the case of mine haulage, where such variables as number of empties or loads per trip, travel times, and number of cars or tons produced in a given time are probabilistic. By using a simple example of one secondary haulage segment of a large underground haulage system, this paper attempts to illustrate how simulation can be used in basic haulage research and what kind of results can be expected. Optimization in this case is performed in terms of locomotive and car movement, as well as best utilization of men and equipment. This is the type of preliminary research that will be needed as a first phase in any major haulage study, whether it be a relatively simple economic analysis or a plan for complete automation. The problem of optimization has been approached primarily from the standpoint of scheduling of the main haulage. It is evident that the method of proba-

Jan 1, 1963

By Frank F. Aplan

In looking into the crystal-ball scene of minerals beneficiation for 1970 and beyond, an impartial observer becomes con- fused as to what has been done and what is possible in the way of improvements. The mining official must balance the burden which is being shouldered by the mineral industry for maintaining our environment in its pristine state on one hand, with the solid advancements made in technology and cost savings on the other hand. Then the official wonders if this is really the criterion for judging overall performance today. As a prospective engineer, Dave Bolles sees it this way: "Specialization has caused many engineers to subordinate everything to doing their job the cheapest and fastest way. In the future this won't be enough. The engineer in the mineral industry will be responsible not only for mining, concentrating and smelting, but also for the resultant wastes- the mine dumps, the tailing dams and the slag piles." (See Drift on page 63).

Jan 1, 1971

By Barbara A. Thompson

A previously reported high-resolution method for the location of boron-rich areas in metallurgical and biological specimens was been adapted for general use on a routine basis. The rnetlzod utilizes neutron activation and autoradiograpizy. Alpha-particles emitted by boron nuclei upon neutron capture are recorded on a photographic emulsion. The resulting a-particle tracks show the location of boron-rich areas. Experimental techniques, interferences, and limitations of the method are discussed in detail. The method is most useful where there is marked segregation of boron. In this type of sample, the segregation can be observed when the nominal boron concentration is as low as 0.0006 pct. THE positive identification and location of boron-rich areas in metals is frequently of great interest in metallurgical work. Unequivocal identification is often difficult to make by conventional metallo-graphic methods. Recently, a method has been described which accomplishes this objective by neutron activation and autoradiography.l-3 The method can be described briefly as follows. Upon neutron capture, a -particles are emitted by boron nuclei according to the following reaction: ,Blo + n - ,a4 + 3Li7 + 2.4 mev The energy is dissipated as kinetic energy of the products. By irradiating a boron-containing sample in contact with a photographic emulsion and subsequently developing this emulsion, a-particle tracks are obtained whose location corresponds to the location of boron-rich areas in the sample. Two factors combine to make the reaction extremely specific for boron. The first is the unusually high (755 barns) cross section of boron for thermal neutron capture. The second is the higher neutron energy required to produce (n, a ) reactions in essentially all other nuclei except lithium. These two factors make the method specific for boron by six to seven orders of magnitude when a predominantly thermal neutron source such as the Brookhaven reactor is used. The reported limit of detection of this method is of the order of 0.01 pct B., The present work was originally undertaken to determine whether this limit could be lowered by use of a thinner emulsion. However, initial experiments showed that in order to use the method at all, it was necessary to reestablish the optimum experimental conditions in terms of the available irradiation facilities. It is the purpose of this paper to describe these experimental conditions in detail, to discuss the factors influencing sensitivity, and to evaluate several techniques for increasing sensitivity. EXPERIMENTAL A) Preliminary Experiments—The first measure-ments were made using samples of crystal oriented silicon steel containing various concentrations of boron. In the later experiments, samples of various high-temperature alloys such as M-252, hcoloy 901, Nichrome V, and so forth, were used. Faraggi, et al.,2 reported that the lower limit of sensitivity in this type of sample was about 0.01 pct B using nuclear emulsions of 50- u thickness. but that it should be possible to extend this limit by the use of thinner emulsions. Accordingly, we first used Kodak Auto-radiographic Stripping Film (Permeable Base) which has an emulsion thickness of only 5 µ. This was mounted on the metallographic specimens according to the technique described by Boyd.4 The emulsion remained in contact with the metal surface throughout exposure and development. Since the emulsion is transparent after development, the autoradiograph and metal surface can be viewed simultaneously and any correlation between film blackening and structure of the metal can be made directly with no problems of realignment. Because the silicon steel is readily attacked by moisture alone, it was necessary to apply a protective coating to the metal surfaces before mounting the emulsion. The coating was made extremely thin in order to absorb as few a-particles as possible. Boyd4 and Gomberg5 have discussed various plastics used for this purpose; however, none was sufficiently impermeable to prevent chemical attack of the steel during the developing process. This attack resulted in the production of gross chemical artifacts in the emulsion. It was, therefore, necessary to use the method of Wolfsberg and John6 as follows. A very thin (approximately 1 µ) coating of Plexiglas II was applied by dipping the sample in a 2 pct solution of Plexiglas II in dichloroethylene. Then, because the emulsion will not adhere to Plexiglas 11, a thin coating of Parlodion was applied in a similar manner using 2 pct Parlodion in iso-amyl acetate. No protective coating was necessary with the high-tem-

Jan 1, 1961

By G. W. Brock

Experiments in the form of aging of overstrained tension specimens and elevated temperature tension testing, have been carried out on recrystallized arc-cast molybdenum. The aging behavior of molybdenum was found to be strongly dependent on the degree of plastic strain present in the lattice: the reason for this being the low solid solubility for the common interstitial elements in molybdenum. GEORGE W. BROCK, formerly Research Associate, Department of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, University of Illinois, Urbana, III., is Research Associate, Department of Engineering Sciences, IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, N. Y. Manuscript submitted January 19, 1961. IMD THE term strain aging is familiar in connection with the recovery of the yield point in mild steel after tensile overstraining, and there are other instances where it is known to exert an appreciable effect on mechanical properties. For example, steel exhibits a greater tensile strength at mildly elevated temperatures than at room temperature and serrated stress-strain flow curves occur under certain conditions. It has been known for a number of years that the phenomenon of strain aging is directly connected with the presence of carbon and nitrogen in the lattice; and extremely small amounts of either element are sufficient to produce the effect. In this study, the aging behavior of overstrained tensile specimens of recrystallized molybdenum has

Jan 1, 1962