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By David A. Larson

The future exploitation of crust deposits will require a dependable characterization system. The U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines (Bureau) initiated research to develop a new sampling dredge by conducting a series of cutting and physical property tests on previously collected cobalt-rich manganese crust and substrate samples. Using the engineering parameters derived from these tests, a large, heavy dredge was designed and tested. This heavy dredge was capable of fragmenting and collecting in situ crust, but it created handling problems for the research vessel, thus an aggressive cutting, light-weight dredge was conceived and fabricated. The light-weight dredge is capable of fragmenting and collecting crust and some talus. This dredge can be used on flat or rough seabed terrains. It can be easily retrieved from hang ups and reset to sample again.

Jan 1, 1991

By Alexander Malahoff

The study of why and how life survives in the Extreme environment is a major frontier of science today. Extremophiles are organisms that require extreme environment including high temperature, pH, pressure and salt concentration, or low temperature, pH, nutrient concentration, or water availability. Their common habitats are geothermal vents, pools, lakes and craters of active volcanic regions, such as those of New Zealand, Japan, Kamchatka, Yellowstone USA or the hydrothermal vents of the ocean ridges and submarine volcanoes. These settings are accessible by foot, boat, helicopter, or submersibles. This presentation examines the geology, chemistry of geothermal sites of New Zealand, including the active volcano, White Island, Yellowstone, the submarine volcano Loihi in Hawaii, and sections of the mid-ocean ridges. Designing process and construction of Extremophilic sampling and bioreactor systems used in the study of Extremophiles will be discussed. The driving force behind the research of extremophiles is not only the fundamental science, but also biotechnological potential associated with these microorganisms and their cellular products. The University of Hawaii?s Marine Bioproducts and Engineering Center (MarBEC) is laying the foundations for such new industries.

Jan 1, 2001

By Ki-Hyune Kim

The Korea Ocean Research and Development Institute conducted its first exploration for deepsea mineral resources in 1983, and began a systematic deepsea prospecting in 1989 among Micronesian islands and in central and eastern parts of Carion-Clipperton fracture zones of eastern Pacific. With the arrival of R/V Onnuri in 1992, KORDI commenced a full-scale national program for nodule exploration. The total area surveyed by KORDI covers more than 1,500,000 km2. At the end of 1993, based on the collected data, Korea designated 300,000 km2 in the Clarion-Clipperton fracture zone as prospective mining area for manganese nodules, and accordingly, the government of Korea submitted the application in January of 1994 to the United Nations for registration as a pioneer investor and for the allocation of a pioneer area. This application was approved by the General Committee of the Preparatory Commission in August 1994. As a result, Korea became the 7m pioneer investor under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. KORDI is now carrying out detailed exploration survey and environmental studies in the registered area to fulfill required obligations to UN, and Korea will continue exploring the last frontier on earth. It is KORDI's unshaken calling to be successful in exploiting deepsea resources to provide our nation resources it lacks. It is not only a challenge to explore deepsea, but it is also our national mission to explore and succeed in our endeavor for future generation.

Jan 1, 2011

By David Heydon

The big money is backing both manganese nodules and manganese crusts as the most likely deep ocean mining development by 2010, but seafloor massive sulphides of copper/gold/zinc offer an alternative bet for a start-up by 2010. A study of the ?form guide? or comparison of these resources provides direction on which resources are economic candidates for commercial deep ocean mining development by 2010. This paper covers the commercial and technical issues of exploration, resource definition, drilling/sampling, sea bed mining options, mine plans, environmental issues, legal tenure and capital and operating costs (i.e., profitability) of these two mineral types. Nautilus Minerals has just completed a pre-feasibility engineering study of mining sea floor massive copper/gold/zinc sulphides at 2,000 m depth. The Nautilus study reviewed a range of mining and lifting options, settling on tracked continuous drum cutter miners to produce 2 million tons per annum of high grade ore. Capital costs are shown to be at least 30% lower than a land based copper mine of the same production capacity. Likewise 75% of world?s copper would be produced at a higher operating cost that the proposed seafloor mine. This paper then draws on the Nautilus study for comparison with earlier feasibility studies by others on manganese nodule mining to predict the likely directions in deep ocean mining to 2010.

Jan 1, 2004

By Sander van Leeuwen

Outline: · De Regt Marine Cables. · The link between system requirements and umbilical requirements (which system requirements have the largest impact on the umbilical design). · Design options for deep sea mining umbilicals (showing the various options for strength member constructions, power conductors and data-transmission). · Technical challenges and risks (outline on the most important technical challenges and risks involved in the construction, production and usage of deep sea umbilicals). · Umbilicals for the SWORD and Blue Nodules project.

Jan 1, 2018

By Alexander Malahoff

With its new continental shelf beyond the exclusive economic zone, New Zealand is a country with just 4% of its territory above water. The other 96% is submerged. New Zealand's marine territory covers an area about three-quarters the size of Australia. This territory includes large portions of the Gondwana continent from which NZ separated more than 80 million years ago. This underwater land mass extends from the shores of New Zealand to a water depth of more than 5,000 m, is largely unexplored and is almost certainly the site of many large, untapped oil, gas and mineral deposits. Underwater oil and gas drilling is now a universal activity. Underwater mining is in its infancy and will become a major activity in the future, contributing greatly to the New Zealand economy. New hydrocarbon deposits will undoubtedly be discovered under the ocean floor in regions such as the Great South Basin located off Canterbury and Otago. Mineral deposits are also undoubtedly located within the oceanic crust of this underwater NZ continent. These are as yet unknown and unexplored. The oceanic crust north of the North Island is currently being extended through the subduction of the Pacific plate into the Tonga Kermadec trench and through the growth of a line of submarine volcanoes extending north to Tonga. Active submarine volcanism has led to the growth of ocean floor mineral deposits consisting of polymetallic sulphides with iron, copper, zinc and lesser gold, silver and other metals.

Jan 1, 2011

By Elisabetta Tedeschi, Razieh Nejati Fard

Deep-sea mining is in the future perspective of mining industry and it is currently in the technological development phase. The focus of this study is on the electrical power system that provides sufficient energy for the mining equipment at the seafloor, excavating Seafloor Massive Sulfide (SMS) deposits. SMS deposits usually exist at water depths between 1500 m and 4000 m. Despite the similarities of SMS deposits excavation to the open-pit terrestrial mines, more energy is required to drill and crush the ores in the hyperbaric conditions [1], which can be done whether by static trench cutters [1] or by mobile mining crawlers [2]. In addition, the ores vertical transportation by subsea pumps requires several MW electrical power that can be supplied by all-electric subsea motors or hydraulically from water injection motors located on the surface. The power requirements can be fulfilled by an offshore or subsea power network. As the SMS mines are usually in remote locations, the straightforward solution will be an isolated offshore grid mounted on a vessel or platform similar to the most of offshore Oil & Gas projects. These power systems resemble the onshore microgrids for industrial purposes operating in island mode. However, in contrast with the onshore power networks, there are space and weight limitations in offshore infrastructures, which impose the design compactness to be a priority. In addition, having a very high reliability is necessary in the design approach of the offshore projects due to the extraordinary high expenses corresponding to repair and maintenance. The other design criterion is to improve the power system efficiency in order to reduce the size of the power equipment cooling apparatus, operational costs and CO2 emissions produced by diesel/LNG onboard generators. There are a few studies considering power system distribution for seafloor mining industry. Among them, [3] has investigated the AC and DC alternatives for SMS mining in 2400 m water depth by considering Solwara 1 project scenario introduced by Nautilus Minerals Inc. [2]. In this study, a power system design tool will be presented taking into account various water depth, power consumption levels, different distribution configurations (AC and DC) and the aforementioned design criteria.

Jan 1, 2018

By Felix Lehnen, Peter Kukla, Mirjam Rahn

"Significant uncertainty is associated with predicting future trends in deep-sea mining projects, especially when attempting to assess markets for associated products such as ships and collectors. In order to help European Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) to appraise the future market share of deep-sea mining equipment, a methodology was developed that allows to assess and predict equipment turnover. This study presents a market analysis, which evaluates the scale of the potential market for deep-sea mining equipment for seafloor manganese nodules (SMnN) and seafloor massive sulfides (SMS) based on six key drivers: (i) the worldwide deposit potential of SMnN and SMS deposits, (ii) the profitability of deep-sea mining projects, (iii) the metal market of seven associated metals (Cu, Zn, Au, Ag, Co, Ni, Mn), (iv) the current legal and environmental situation in the Area, (v) investment and maintenance costs, and (vi) a competitor analysis.Figures for the different key drivers are based on public reports and expert interviews. Large uncertainties as well as contrasting views and expectations resulted in different options (scenarios) for the future development of the deep-sea mining market. Several scenarios were developed and based on the future number of “mining projects” in the short-term (2022-2041) and the long-term (2042-2061). The number of such mining projects has been calculated based on the combined analysis of the different key drivers.In the scope of this study, the definition of a “mining project” is a deep-sea mining operation for SMnN or SMS lasting for 20 years. This operation includes the purchase of a set of deep-sea mining equipment consisting of a mining support vessel, a vertical transport system and the seafloor mining equipment, in line with other work within the EU FP7 project “Blue Mining” (GA No. 604500)."

Jan 1, 2017

By Sup Hong

"Lifting riser in deep-seabed mining (DSM) is exposed to acute and chronic stresses of materials, whose yield will result in the most critical loss of total mining system. For freehanging riser (FHR), the axial vibration and local bending of riser may produce acute stresses, in the meanwhile, vortex-induced vibration (VIV) in relative current, friction and collisions of solid particles with inner-wall, and material corrosion in seawater are representative causes of chronic stresses. The chronical stresses bring about fatigue failure or abrupt failure by material loss. Hydraulic lifting is effective and promising for transportation of minerals, however, ecofriendly treatment of operating seawater is an unease hurdle to come over. Sizing of riser section confronts multi-directional problems, i.e. safety of slurry transportation (flow assurance), material safety of riser (wall thickness), seawater treatment on board, etc.A free-standing riser (FSR) might exclude a part of design problems of free-hanging riser and give a way to sustainable mining. FSR stands vertically by means of sub-buoyancy part(s). The top of FSR emerges above sea surface and is connected with mining platform through jumper line (supported by external yoke). Total amount of sub-buoyancy and location(s) have to be carefully determined in viewpoints of dynamics of FSI (fluidstructure interaction) in waves and currents. The concept of FSR gives more freedom for design of multi-functional riser system in view of sustainability of DSM. In DSM, sustainability concept may be focused on eco-friendly treatment of seawater and sediment, and safety of total mining system. For feasibility of FSR, however, installation, maintenance and repair need to be investigated thoroughly in collaboration with industry experts"

Jan 1, 2017

By Laurie Meyer

The need for improved, high confidence estimates of nodule abundance to support mine permitting, detailed mine planning and mining and processing equipment design is evident. To date, physical samples represent the ?Gold Standard? for nodule abundance measurement, and are likely to remain as such. However, there are some interesting improvements in the area of 3-D scanning which, if marinized for operations at 6000m, may prove to be reliable alternative methods for mapping abundance over large areas particularly if calibrated or benchmarked with physical sample data. . Features of a high confidence physical sampling device, such as the 0.75m2 (0.86m on a side) box corer developed and successfully used by the Kennecott Group for exploration in the CCZ, take into account not only the accuracy in nodule sample collection but a host of other operability considerations which can mean the difference between a successful exploration cruise yielding high numbers of large area samples and one in which few, inaccurate, often inconclusive samples are collected (or, even worse, the sampler fails to grab any nodules for any number of reasons). The collection of physical samples at appropriate spacing within a mine area combined with more qualitative indications of nodule density such as can be obtained using acoustic backscatter should prove adequate for the near term objectives related to overall abundance appraisal or estimates of ?indicated? resource. Looking ahead, exploration cruises will need to yield increasing amounts of data to support development of higher confidence resource abundance estimates to support issuance of mining permits and detailed design of mining plans and equipment. It is likely

Sep 14, 2011

By M. Ravindran

The Government of India started its deep seabed exploration programme during 1982. This programme was started as one of national importance and several national laboratories were involved to realize the development of requisite technologies for deepsea mining and processing. After a concentrated effort on surveying, using its own as well as hired ships, India succeeded by mid 1980s in identifying a prospective site in the Indian Ocean as an exclusive claim for development. India was registered as a Pioneer Investor and became the first country to obtain this status on 17th August 1987. India has been allocated an exclusive mine site of 150,000 km2 in the Central Indian Ocean. Our country also developed considerable expertise in the metallurgical processing for extracting metals from these nodules. The Department of Ocean Development, Government of India, the organization which is designated as the nodal agency responsible for implementing the deep seabed mining programme has drawn up a long term plan which will enable it to fulfill its obligations as a Pioneer Investor. The work toward the design and development of a mining system has been entrusted to the Central Mechanical and Engineering Research Institute, Durgapur. As a part of this programme they have developed a nodule collector and a riser system which have been tested in very shallow waters only. Since this technology development for deep sea mining applications is highly time consuming and very expensive, this programme is also being used to develop components for intermediate applications. In view of the long timeframe required for perfecting a deepsea nodule mining technology, the Government of India is also keen on developing shallow water mining systems for utilizing the placer deposits. One of the richest heavy mineral deposits in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone is available on the west coast of South India in the state of Kerala. The coastal stretch between Kanyakumari, on the southern tip of India, and Alleppey along the west coast at a distance from the tip of approximately 210 km, there is a good multimineral reserve. The initial survey indicates that the estimated reserves in the surveyed areas are approximately as follows: Ilmenite 1.4 million tonnes Rutile 0.14 million tomes Zircon 0.13 million tomes Sillimanite 0.53 million tonnes

Jan 1, 1994

By Cameron Rees

The University of New South Wales Mining Research Centre (UMRC) has a longstanding research reputation in mining research, with particular expertise in mining systems, mining geomechanics and excavation engineering. The UMRC is now focusing this expertise on the potential of mining Seafloor Massive Sulphides (SMS). The UMRC has initiated a three-year research project that will identify and examine the requirements to effectively and efficiently mine SMS deposits. The major aims of this project are: ? To develop an understanding of the geomechanical characteristics and local physical environmental conditions associated with a ?typical? SMS deposit. ? To develop and evaluate a range of both conventional and innovative excavation processes for mining SMS deposits, and define the engineering parameters required for each extraction option, and ? To identify the materials handling and lifting requirements of the ?mined? SMS material, and the possible integration of the lifting system with the excavation processes considered.

Jan 1, 2002

By Justin C. I. Baulch

In October 2004 Placer Dome entered into an exploration farm-in agreement with Nautilus Minerals, to explore for Submarine Massive Sulphide (SMS) deposits on Nautilus? PNG exploration tenements. Placer/Nautilus currently holds approximately 15,000 km2 of tenements in PNG waters, either granted or under application, covering all reported seafloor hydrothermal vent occurrences.

Jan 1, 2005

By Richard H. T. Garnett

Diamonds were discovered on the coast of Namibia in 1907 but it was not until 1962 that the first gems were produced from offshore by a barge employing an airlift. Geophysical surveys and a sampling program were initiated and an understanding of the diamond distribution was gained. Several vessels, some with multiple airlifts, were used until the early 1970's. Some spectacular production results were achieved, but generally the systems failed to retrieve the gravels efficiently from beneath the overburden and off the bedrock. Various companies continued working with mixed outcomes until the mid-1980's, when new regulations were enacted by the authorities. The local Southern sea conditions dictate the present mining methods which are now applied over several hundred kilometers of the west coast. In shallow waters divers operate from small vessels, suctioning the diamondiferous gravels to surface with gravel pumps. In water depths of up to 50 m airlifts of various designs continue to be utilized with recovery plants installed on the vessels. Beyond 100 m depths a remote controlled, tracked, vehicle is used, together with a large drill mounted on swell compensator. Each system is deployed from a separate ocean-going vessel. Production of diamonds from the offshore is rising rapidly, with expectations of further increases. The coastline is likely to be the scene of new developments in marine mining techniques.

Jan 1, 1992

By Mark D. Hannington

Results of the R/V Sonne Cruise (Edison) to the Tabar-Feni Arc from March 11 to April 5, 1994, a joint German-Canadian research cruise aboard the vessel R/V Sonne, undertook detailed mapping of the Tabar-Feni island chain, Papua New Guinea. The Tabar-Feni chain is host to several large porphyry stocks and epithermal gold deposits, including the giant Ladolam gold deposit on the island of Lihir (minimum 19 million oz. Au). The principal objective of the cruise was to map the seafloor in the vicinity of recently active alkaline volcanic islands in the Tabar-Feni chain and to characterize the tectonic setting of large high-level porphyry and epithermal gold deposits in the region. Additional work was carried out on shallow-water hot springs associated with mineralized geothermal systems on the volcanic islands. Complete sets of 1:50,000 scale (20-m contour) maps of the seafloor were produced for each of the four island groups (Feni, Tanga, Lihir, Tabar). The Lihir group was the most active and the most interesting. At least 4 (and probably 6 or 7), previously unknown volcanic cones were discovered within about 10 miles south of Lihir. The volcanoes are clearly very young and appear to have erupted along extensional faults produced by regional plate rotation. This recent volcanic activity appears to reflect recent forearc extension and represents the southward propagation of volcanic activity towards New Ireland. One volcanic cone at 1,490 m water depth is hydrothermally active, with very large areas of diffuse venting (100-200 m across), densely populated by beds of giant clams (probably calyptogena). Other vent-specific fauna are also present, including crabs, snails, sulfide worms, scale worms, limpettes, etc. The clam beds sit on a crust of hydrothermally baked and indurated, sulfidic, hyaloclastite-rich muds. The mineralization consists mainly of fine-grained disseminated pyrite and amorphous Fe-sulfides. A second, much larger cone at a depth of 1,070 m is capped by massive vesicular lavas which are intensely fractured and mineralized. Abundant sulfides and amorphous silica occur in stockwork-like veins which

Jan 1, 1994

By R. D. Hamer

"The Atlantis II Deposit comprises metalliferous sediments (Zn+Cu+Ag+Au) accumulating in a composite, axial basin, 2,000m beneath the surface of the Red Sea. The basin contains warm, highly saline water. It is located approximately half way between Jeddah and Port Sudan within the Exclusive Economic zones of Saudi Arabia and Sudan. The Deposit was discovered in 1963 and evaluated by drilling in the 1970s and 1980s. This phase defined an initial resource of approximately 90Mt. More recent estimations have refined this figure to an Inferred Resource of approximately 80Mt (CIM compliant).The Mining Licence to develop and extract the Atlantis II Deep Deposit was granted to Manafai International Trade in 2010 by the joint Saudi-Sudanese Red Sea Commission. Manafai is poised to embark on a renewed phase of exploration and evaluation, including the completion of a Definitive Feasibility Study (DFS) and leading to the successful exploitation of the Deposit in a safe, environmentally sound, economically viable and socially responsible manner.The Deposit is forming in a complex basin adjacent the median rift, where sea floor spreading has operated during the last 5Ma. It is a Hydrothermal-sedimentary Deposit. The mineralised sedimentary rocks rest directly on sea floor basaltic rocks. They are produced by the exhalation of metal-rich, hydrothermal brines from fissures associated with the central rift and cross-cutting fracture zones. Up to 25m of metal-rich sediments have accumulated over an area exceeding 57km²."

Jan 1, 2017

By Laura Moore

The southern shoreline of Monterey Bay, extending from Moss Landing to the Monterey Peninsula, consists of sandy beaches backed by an extensive Flandrian and pre-Flandrian dune complex. This length of shoreline, proximal to areas of urban expansion, is currently being considered for development. For this reason, it is extremely important to understand the variability of beach and dune position along this stretch of coast through time. Previous studies of southern Monterey Bay have documented relatively high erosion rates of 2-8 ft/yr due to a net deficit in the sand budget. Although the sediment transport system in this region is not well understood, estimates for the sediment deficit in southern Monterey Bay range from 200,000 to 1,500,000 yd3/yr. A possible cause of the erosional regime in the southern bay is the removal of sediment by coastal sand mining operations. Based on agency reports and mining permit applications, approximate volumes of sand removed by mining range from 300,000 to 450,000 yd3/yr. These volumes are significant when compared with estimated values for the sediment budget deficit. The sand of southern Monterey Bay, a valuable commercial resource because of its hardness, roundness, amber color and range of usable grain sizes, has been removed from the surf zone, beaches and dunes of Marina and Sand City by four companies since 1906. Information regarding the cross-shore location of sand removal and the exact amounts of sand removal through time is proprietary and poorly documented. However, records documenting the time at which each company commenced and terminated mining do exist. This information suggests that the greatest amount of sand was removed between 1950 and 1968 when three mining companies were operating concurrently.

Jan 1, 1994

By Ulrich Von Stackelber

Deep sea mining of manganese nodules actually will have an environmental impact to the seafloor and to the water column. However, we are far from being able to predict the possible consequences. Therefore, in 1992 environmental studies were conducted with the R/V Sonne in a manganese nodule field of the Peru Basin. The bathymetry of the seafloor was mapped using the hydrosweep system and the distribution and type of sediments were investigated by the parasound system and by collecting surface samples and sediment cores. Deep towing of a side-scan sonar system revealed a Mn encrustation of sediments and a nodule coverage of variable density. Along the tracks of a photo sledge a great variability of bottom fauna and of bioturbation was observed. Bottom-mechanical investigations of surface-near sediments were completed on board. Additionally water samples were collected near the sea floor to determine character and amount of dissolved and suspended particles. Manganese nodules and crusts were collected at 80 locations. In many aspects the nodules differ from those of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: Big cauliflower-shaped nodules with growth rates up to 160 mm/ Ma may reach a maximum size of 24 cm in diameter, maximum abundance may be 44 kg/m2, the mean size of buried nodules is greater than that of surface nodules. The reason for that difference is due to the relatively high bioproductivity in surface waters and to a Mn redox boundary in the sediment column 10 cm below the seafloor. Histograms of nodules showing the distribution of size and growth type clearly indicate that the growth history is different for basins, slopes and tops of seamounts and ridges. Nodules with diameters >7 cm show mainly diagenetic and to a minor degree hydrogenetic growth. Smaller nodules of the same assemblage are composed mainly of hydrogenetically grown Mn oxide. The optimum diagenetic growth occurs within the sediment immediately above the Mn redox boundary, a level which is not reached by the small nodules.

Jan 1, 1994

By J. R. Woolsey

In late 1988, the Committee for Coordination of Joint Prospecting for Mineral Resources in South Pacific Offshore Areas (CCOP/SOPAC), Suva, Fiji, consulted the Continental Shelf Division of the Marine Minerals Technology Center regarding low-tech, low-cost, reconnaissance sampling systems for a variety of nearshore needs. Materials of interest to several member island nations included silica and calcareous aggregate for cement manufacture, sand for beach replenishment, heavy minerals, and precious metals. A principal criteria of the system was that it be of low-tech design, and as far as possible, suitable for construction on the islands from available materials. It should also be operable with SOPAC personnel on island vessels of opportunity. The system selected to satisfy these requirements was a convertible drill of basic airlift design, capable of operating with easy modification as either a vibralift or airlift, depending on the desired application. The basic system included a drill pipe constructed of heavy duty 76 mm (3") black iron pipe, divided into three 3 meter sections (for ease of transport), fitted with an air intake manifold and bit at the lower end. A 25 mm (1") galvanized pipe assembled in three similar sections and clamped to the drill pipe served as a water jet to assist in cutting. Air was supplied to the manifold by means of a 12 mm (1/2") pipe also clamped along the length of the drill pipe. Suitable hoses supplied water and air to the upper ends of the respective pipes by means

Jan 1, 1989

The chemical composition of the nodules varies with the type of manganese minerals and the size and characteristics of their nucleus but those who have an economic interest have nucleus, generally : Mn> Fe> 6> Si> Al> Ba> Ni> Cu > Co. The Pacific Rim is an area of abundant occurrence of polymetallic nodules and the Pacific sea floor of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is one of the most interesting areas in regard to the genesis of polymetallic nodules. Their abundance in the ocean floor is very variable, as there are places where they cover more than 70% of the ocean floor. The nodules can be found at any depth, but the highest concentrations are between 4000 and 6000. Hydrothermal processes that occurs near the East Pacific Rise at 21° N, may inputs metallic elements to nodules and to pelagic sediments, especially in regions close to the dorsal, as a greater influence hydrogenetic processes are present westward Metals such as Cu, Co, Ni, Sn, Fe, Mg, Pb, Zn and Ba show a relationship with the East Pacific hydrothermal activity and sea currents carry these metals in solution to the Clarion-Clipperton fracture area, where there are hydrogenic metals sources (Al, Fe and Mn).

Sep 14, 2011