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By Mark S. Redfern, Kim M. Corneliusa, Christopher A. Hamrick, Sean Gallaghera

Coal miners often handle heavy electrical power cables, weighing up to 10 kg per meter. These cables are manually lifted and attached to the mine roof to prevent damage from mobile underground equipment. Data suggest that workers who commonly perform cable handling tasks experience a high rate of lost time back injuries. In this study, six male underground miners performed a total of 12 cable-hanging tasks in standing, stooping, and kneeling postures, during which kinematic and ground reaction force data were collected. Reductions in vertical work space were found to result in a linear increase in the peak moment experienced by the lumbarspine (p<0.05). In restricted postures, peak moments were not significantly different in stooping vs. kneeling postures (p>0.05). Average lumbopelvic flexion during the tasks was highest in stooping conditions, followed by standing and kneeling exertions (p<0.05). Implications of this data with respect to design of cable handling tasks are presented and discussed. Keywords: Biomechanics, posture, low back pain, restricted workspace, mining

By R. H. Grau

Researchers from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health have demonstrated that mine-wide ventilation in large-opening stone mines can be improved by using low-pressure, high-volume propeller fans and constructing stoppings in key locations to direct and control airflow. In light of these findings, a comparative study was conducted to determine if a portable diesel-powered propeller fan could per-form more efficiently for dust dilution and transport than an axial vane fan for localized ventilation. The objective of this study is to evaluate both fan types for ventilation efficiency at an underground dump/crusher facility in a limestone mine. Results showed an improvement with the propeller fan to dilute both the respirable dust and the respirable silica dust around the dump/crusher facility. Overall, an average reduction of 20% in respirable dust and silica was observed at the dump/crusher location with the propeller fan.

In 2001, 14,623 mining operations reported employment statistics to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). This was an increase of 210 mining operations compared to 2000. Almost half (49%) were sand and gravel mines, followed by stone (29%), coal (15%), nonmetal mines (5%), and metal mines (2%).

May 1, 2003

THIS bulletin presents all analytical and lest methods regularly used by Bureau of Mines laboratories for characterizing coal and coke. To provide better service to coal producers and consumers, the scope of this bulletin has been expanded to include important test methods used to evaluate coal properties for commercial processing. The methods described will prove valuable to all persons interested in analyzing and testing coal and coke.

Jan 1, 1967

By Michael Radnor

The purpose of the study was to 1) examine the social and economic impacts of surface mine blasting in relation to variations in conditions of terrain and geology, population density and type, levels of ground motion and air blast; 2) consider technical, legal and government policy issues; and 3) examine the potential, nature and extent of surface mine blasting impacts and its regulations upon both communities and surface mining companies. Phase One designed the empirical research and technical analyses of Phase Two, focused upon surface coal mining and quarrying in the Eastern U.S. Several broad conclusions are evident: 1) blasting is not the major issue for communities or surface mine companies; 2) while the number of instances of severe cracking or annoyance are relatively small, the impact can be severe for individuals immediately involved; 3) blasting/drilling cost curves tend to rise significantly at intervals below 1.0 particle velocity, in/sec, dependent upon the size of a permit area and the size of a mine; and 4) the legal, complaint, cost and density analyses do not suggest the need for a general lowering of present regulations.

Jan 1, 1981

By S. J. Schatzel, W. P. Diamond

High methane emissions originating from the active face areas and from the fractured formations overlying and underlying the mined coalbed can adversely affect both safety and productivity in underground coal mines. Since ventilation alone may not be sufficient to control the methane levels in the longwall mining environment, gob gas ventholes have become a standard supplementary methane control option in many mines. As mines progress into deeper and gassier coalbeds, or as longwall panel size increases, ventilation and gob gas ventholes together may not be sufficient to maintain methane levels within statutory limits. To decrease the risk associated with methane emissions under these circumstances, in-seam horizontal methane drainage is often used to reduce the gas content of the coalbed prior to mining. Horizontal methane drainage borehole completion designs, drilling strategies, and degasification lead times may need to be adjusted for site-specific conditions due to mine design, geology, and the gas content of the coalbed. This study investigates different horizontal methane drainage borehole patterns, borehole lengths, and degasification times prior to and during panel extraction to evaluate their effectiveness in reducing methane emissions using a "dynamic" 3D reservoir modeling of a 38 1-m wide longwall panel operating in the Pittsburgh coalbed. Results of this study showed that dual and tri-lateral boreholes are more effective in decreasing emissions and in shielding the entries compared to fewer shorter, cross-panel, horizontal boreholes parallel to the longwall face. Modeling results showed that after 12 months of pre-mining methane drainage, the average longwall face emission rates can be reduced by as much as 10.3 m3/min and 6.8 m3/min using tri- and dual-lateral boreholes, respectively. It was also shown that if pre-mining methane drainage time is short, it is important to continue methane drainage during the panel extraction to maximize reductions in longwall face emissions since additional face emission reductions achieved during this period can be comparable to pre-mining degasification.

By David C. Oyler, Hakan Gurgenli, Gregory M. Molinda

Historically, miners have known that roof rocks originally composed largely of mud were prone to slaking and deterioration when exposed to water and humidity. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) records show that roof falls are more prevalent in summer and late fall. Field data shows higher bolt loads and increased room convergence in summer months. Laboratory data shows that very high internal pressures can be generated by significant strain in clay-rich rocks. In summer months humidities ranging from 70-100% can cause rock strains up to 7%, and rock pressures of 14,000 psi, more than enough to break apart weak shales and fireclays. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted wet/dry immersion cycling of clay-rich rocks. Results show that the rocks most prone to moisture deterioration are fireclays, claystones, and sandy shales, all of which have disrupted bedding. Of the 7 mudrocks with a weatherability index above 40%, none showed consistent fissile bedding. Black shales were surprisingly resistant to wet/dry water immersion cycling. Generally, mixed rocks (stackrock), typically susceptible to horizontal stress, are more resistant to moisture-deterioration. Mine roof rocks tested with moisture sensitivity ratings above 50% (moisture sensitivity index ranges from 0-100 with 100 being the most sensitive) all came from mines which had roof skin problems and used supplemental support to prevent rock fall injuries. Some roof rocks showed lateral variability of moisture sensitivity values, suggesting the need for more samples in highly varying roof rocks. Swelling strains of mudrocks showed that almost all of the swelling occurred in the first 24 hours after immersion. The wet/dry immersion cycling test used provides an accurate, quick and inexpensive method for estimating the moisture sensitivity of mudrocks. With this information mine operators can begin to anticipate hazardous ground and prepare appropriate roof support.

By Jeffrey M. Listak

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted field tests to evaluate the effectiveness of a wet head continuous mining machine for reducing dust exposure for continuous miner operators. Wet head technology delivers water via sprays to the continuous miner&apos;s cutter head as opposed to traditional standard sprays located on the boom and body of the mining machine. The sprays, positioned directly behind each bit on the cutter head, deliver water at the point of attack, serving to cool the bits during mining to reduce the potential for frictional ignitions. The sprays also flood the coal with water to potentially suppress dust generation. Dust surveys were conducted at several mines to evaluate the wet head&apos;s effectiveness to control respirable dust exposure at the continuous miner operator location and in the immediate return. Results show that the wet head miner improved air quality at both locations to varying degrees in some cases and not in others when compared to a continuous miner with a standard spray system.

Jan 1, 2010

By Eric S. Weiss, Deno M. Pappas, Timothy M. Barton

During the past few years, the Pittsburgh Research Laboratory of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has been evaluating developments in sealant support systems from a ground control perspective. The proper selection and use of a sealant material can significantly enhance ground control which may result in a decrease in worker related injuries due to ground falls. The purpose of this paper is threefold: to briefly review the current state-of-the-art technology in shotcrete and membrane developments, to evaluate the preliminary findings of a long-term underground study of various types of sealant materials, and to examine installation practices that are critical for an effective sealant material. The underground study utilizes NIOSH’s Lake Lynn Laboratory Experimental Mine to evaluate the long-term performance of several types of shotcrete and membrane materials. Sealant performance to date have been evaluated on a regular basis over a two year period. Although the study is still ongoing, critical mining practices were identified that may seriously effect the bond of the sealant materials to the mine roof and rib; most notably, the importance of scaling and thorough cleaning of the rib prior to application. Also, results froman extensive series of Schmidt Hammer tests found that the shotcrete increased in strength by 70% during the humid summer months.

By R. E. Heithecker

In Kansas, almost every oil well drilled into a limestone formation is treated with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid upon completion. This is done to increase the potential capacity of the well and thereby increase its "daily allowable" production (see p. 9 ), to shorten the time required to produce the recoverable oil, and to increase the quantity of oil recovered ultimately from the reservoir. The porosity and. permeability of limestone formations seldom are uniform throughout the proved area, consequently the production capacities of completed wells vary considerably. Acid treatment of wells tends to increase production capacity and to equalize potential capacity. If offset wells already have been treated with acid, new wells usually are treated to protect the property on which they are drilled against drainage. Even though competitive conditions do not exist in a field, it

Jan 1, 1939

By Gregory M. Molinda

Extremely difficult ground conditions were encountered in the main belt entry in a room and pillar mine in West Virginia. Several generations of supplemental support, including cable bolts, cribbing, and Heintzmann jacks and beams failed to halt roof falls that threatened workers safety and the life of the mine. Polyurethane (PUR) was injected into 27 intersections in the roof and the results were monitored by borehole video camera. The mine had averaged 2-3 falls in the beltway per year and, since the roof injection, no roof falls have occurred. Pre- and post injection monitoring of test holes showed that stability can be achieved without filling all of the existing void spaces. Video logging showed that the project goal of building a beam from 2-6 ft into the roof was successful. Pre-injection monitoring of roof fractures uphole can delineate the zones to target for reinforcement, and avoid pumping PUR into large voids to little effect. Multiple-injection zones can be identified, and the entire intersection drill hole array can be optimized based on knowledge of the fractured zones. In addition, pre-monitoring can prevent excessive hydrofracturing in solid zones. Polyurethane injection is a proven method of rock stabilization in even the weakest, most broken ground. Optimization of the injection design by pre-injection video diagnostics can greatly contribute to the successful and efficient roof stabilization.

By Gerald T. Homce, James C. Cawley

This paper updates an earlier report by the authors that studied electrical injuries from 1992 to 1998. The previous information is expanded and supplemented with fatal and nonfatal injury rates and trends through 2002. Injury numbers and rates were used to compare and trend electrical injury experience for various groups and categories. This information allowed identification of at-risk groups that could most benefit from effective electrical safety interventions. The data presented in this paper are derived from the U.S. Labor Department’s Bureau of Labor Statistics’ Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI), Survey of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries (SOII) and Current Population Survey (CPS). Between 1992 and 2002, 3,378 workers died from on-the-job electrical injuries. Electricity remained the sixth leading cause of injury-related occupational death. From 1999 through 2002, 4.7% of all occupational deaths were caused by electricity, down from 5.2% in the 1992 to 1998 time period. The cause of death was listed as electrocution in 99.1% of fatal cases. Contact with overhead power lines was involved in 42% of all on-the-job electrical deaths. The construction industry accounted for 47% of all electrical deaths between 1992 and 2002, but showed overall improvement from 1995 through 2002 by reducing its electrical fatality rate from 2.2 to 1.5 per 100,000 workers. An additional 46,598 workers were nonfatally injured by electricity. Contact with electric current of machine, tool, appliance, or light fixture and contact with wiring, transformers, or other electrical components accounted for 36% and 34% of nonfatal electrical injuries, respectively. Contact with underground, buried power lines was involved with 1% of fatal injuries and 2% of nonfatal injuries. NIOSH research aimed at evaluating commercially available overhead power line proximity warning alarms is described. This research is expected to be the initial step for eventual development of a performance standard for such systems.

By R. E. Heithecker

In Kansas, almost every oil well drilled into a limestone formation is treated with hydrochloric (muriatic) acid upon completion. This is done to increase the potential capacity of the well and thereby increase its "daily allowable" production (see p. 9), to shorten the time required to produce the recoverable oil, and to increase the quantity of oil recovered ultimately from the reservoir. The porosity and. permeability of limestone formations seldom are uniform throughout the proved area, consequently the production capacities of completed wells vary considerably. Acid treatment of wells tends to increase production capacity and to equalize potential capacity. If offset wells already have been treated with acid, new wells usually are treated to protect the property on which they are drilled against drainage. Even though competitive conditions do not exist in a field, it

Jan 1, 1939

By Terry G. Montgomery, Eric S. Weiss, John E. Going, Kenneth L. Cashdollar

The Pittsburgh Research Laboratory (PRL) of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) conducted joint research on dust explosions by studying post-explosion dust samples. The samples were collected after full-scale explosions at the PRL Lake Lynn Experimental Mine (LLEM), and after laboratory explosions in the PRL 20-L chamber and the Fike I m3 chamber. The dusts studied included both high- and low-volatile bituminous coals. Low temperature ashing for 24 h at 515 °C was used to measure the incombustible content of the dust before and after the explosions. The data showed that the post-explosion incombustible content was always as high as, or higher than the initial incombustible content. The MSHA alcohol coking test was used to determine the amount of coked dust in the post-explosion samples. The results showed that almost all coal dust that was suspended within the explosion flame produced significant amounts of coke. Measurements of floor dust concentrations after LLEM explosions were compared with the initial dust loadings to determine the transport distance of dust during an explosion. All these data will be useful in future forensic investigations of accidental dust explosions in coal mines, or elsewhere.

By D. Gearhart

Full-scale tests are conducted on mine roof supports using protocols developed by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) using the unique capabilities of the Mine Roof Simulator (MRS). These protocols simulate the loading conditions that the support will be exposed to in an underground mine to determine the performance capabilities and limitations of the support. Some tests are conducted with rigid boundary conditions, creating uniform contact and near ideal axial loading conditions. These tests are used to determine the ultimate performance potential of a support, including the strength, stiffness, and stability. For prop supports where stability is a critical design issue, tests are implemented to induce buckling by a modified end condition, eccentric contact, or biaxial loading. It is important to determine the cpacity of the support design when the support is subjected to unpredictable loading conditions. This paper examines the effect of end conditions and load profiles on prop support performance and applies a new analysis methodology based on eccentric loading to determine a factor of safety for load capacity. Recommendations for installation practices that minimize eccentricity and therefore preserve capacity are also provided.

By Jürgen F. Brune, Alex C. Smith, William D. Monaghan

One of the predominant causes of fires in underground coal mines is flame cutting and welding. These fires can lead to major events such as the explosion that occurred on January 22, 2003 in an airshaft being constructed at the McElroy mine. Six contractors were inside the shaft at the time of the explosion and the explosion fatally injured three and seriously injured three [MSHA 2003]. Understanding the root causes of these fires and explosions will help prevent these types of events from occurring in the future. Fires and explosions require fuel, oxygen and an ignition source (heat). These three items are referred to as a fire triangle. The control of these three items in flame cutting and welding operations is required to prevent fires and or explosions. United States Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) Reports of Investigation (ROI), MSHA Mine Accident, Injury, and Illness Reports, and the MSHA Mining Industry Accident, Injuries Employment, and Production Data Base were analyzed and interviews and observations with mine workers and welders were conducted to determine the root causes of coal mine fires and explosions caused by flame cutting and welding operations. This paper will discuss the root causes and potential means to reduce the number of fires and resulting fatalities and injuries caused by or due to flame cutting and welding.

Objective To reduce dust generated from soiled floors within enclosed operator cabs. Background Enclosed operator cabs are widely used on mobile excavation equipment in the mining and construction industries. They protect the operator from bad weather, noise, and airborne dusts. The inside cab environment usually must be kept at very low dust concentrations because of quartz dust generated from the excavation of silica-bearing rock. For cabs to be effective in controlling airborne respirable dust, they must have an efficient air filtration system, while providing a positive pressurization of the cab interior. Ideally, the recirculated and exterior makeup air filtration should provide at least 99% capture efficiency for dust particles as small as 0.3-µmaerodynamic diameters. Many of these enclosed cabs use heating units mounted or directed along the floor (see figure 1), which can cause dust entrainment problems. Prior studies by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) of enclosed cabs have shown that these floor heaters can generate notable amounts of dust within the cab enclosure (see Technology News 486). Multiple-shift dust levels measured inside a drill cab increased on average from0.04 mg/m3 during the summer months to 0.68 mg/m3 during the winter months. Additional dust level measurements, made with optical particle counters during a nondrilling time period, verified that dust levels inside the cab increased from 0.03 to 0.26 mg/m3when the floor heater/fan was turned on. Dust levels within the cab also became greater than the ambient air dust levels outside of the cab when the floor heater was turned on during the nondrilling time period. This shows that the floor heater was a notable dust source problem. Cab floors are commonly soiled from operators tracking dirt inside the cab upon entering from the mine or construction site. Interior cab dust levels can be increased by (1) airflow disturbance of the soiled floor or (2) operator disturbance of the soiled floor. Approach During prior NIOSH surveys of surface coal mine drills, several drills with very low cab dust levels (#0.1 mg/m3) were observed to have floor sweeping compound spread out over the cab floor during the working shift. This initial observation led to a more controlled A-B study of the effect of the sweeping compound on the interior cab dust levels. This study involved dust sampling with and without sweeping compound inside the cabs of a bulldozer and two drills. Sweeping compounds commonly use sawdust or cellulose as the main bulk material, with oil or wax added for dust adhesion purposes. Sand is sometimes added to increase bulk density. Sweeping compounds with sand are commonly used to sweep up concrete floors. Those without sand (usually referred to as "gritless") are used to sweep up smooth finished floors. Most of the oils and waxes used for the adhesive ingredient are petroleum-base and can have an irritating odor. People sensitized to petroleum distillates could have allergic reactions to these sweeping compounds. A few companies offer non petroleum-base sweeping compounds, using either a natural oil or chemical additive for dust adhesion. During this study, it was decided that only the gritless sweeping compound (without sand) would be used, eliminating the addition of another potential silica source inside the cab. Since the sweeping compound would be applied on the enclosed cab floor for the duration of the shift, it was decided to use a canola oil-base sweeping compound to eliminate irritating odor from the petroleum-base sweeping compounds. The natural canola oil-base sweeping compound had a slight woody scent. The three pieces of equipment used in this study had notably different cab layouts. The bulldozer had a small cab with vents discharging air-conditioned or heated air from adjustable louvers at operator waist level and floor level. The bulldozer also had a cloth fabric seat and a carpeted floor. Drill A had a large cab with the heat directed from adjustable louvers at operator knee level and the air-conditioned air directed from cabin ceiling louvers. This drill had a vinyl fabric seat and a steel plate floor. Drill B had a small cabin with the heat directed across the floor (see figure 1) and the air-conditioned air directed down from the ceiling. It had a vinyl fabric seat and a worn rubber mat on a steel floor.

May 1, 2001

By Kim M. Cornelius

Musculoskeletal injury is a term used to describe a wide range of soft tissue disorders which affect the nerves, tendons, and muscles. Common examples include lower back pain, tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome. The majority of these injuries are not the result of sudden mishaps, but usually develop gradually from repeated wear and tear. Symptoms may first appear after weeks, months, or even years. Symptoms may result from many types of activities, performed at work or at home, and it is often difficult to attribute a single event. In fact, it is more common to identify the factors which may have contributed to the development of the condition. The terms repetitive strain injuries or cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) have been commonly used to refer to disorders that have occurred due to work related activities (Putz-Anderson, 1988; Fraser, 1989). Three main risk factors contribute to CTDs: force, repetition, and awkward postures. Any one or combination of these may contribute to the development of CTDs. Therefore, the design of equipment in conjunction with the required tasks should attempt to reduce these risk factors. Examining the layout of the work area to help identify tasks which may contribute to cumulative trauma is necessary. The following list(Putz-Anderson, 1988), describes ergonomic concerns that, overall, should be minimized at the work area:

Jan 1, 1997

By W. R. Reed, J. A. Organiscak

Haul trucks have the potential to generate large amounts of respirable dust. This respirable dust has been shown to be a health hazard to personnel, especially if it has a high silica content. Lack of dust sampling data from haul trucks prompted the completion of a study to quantify respirable dust concentrations. These field studies were conducted measuring instantaneous respirable dust at stationary locations from passing haul trucks at a stone quarry and at a coal mine site. Fugitive dust levels from haul trucks were analyzed to characterize dust dispersion. This analysis indicates safe following distances for haul trucks and other heavy equipment to avoid overexposure of respirable dust from the lead haul truck.

By Michael A. Trevits

Since the promulgation of the MINER Act and the follow-up changes to the regulations governing mine seal construction and maintenance, mine operators must be acutely aware of the atmosphere in sealed mine areas and prepared to deploy control technologies when the conditions are warranted. On Site Gas Systems1 in Newington, Connecticut was awarded a contract by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) to construct a novel in-mine nitrogen (N2) generation plant using pressure swing adsorption (PSA) technology. PSA technology utilizes carbon molecular sieve material and pressure to adsorb oxygen (O2) molecules while allowing N2 molecules to pass through the sieve material. The prototype PSA unit was tested at the NIOSH Safety Research Coal Mine (SRCM) where a 62,000 ft3 area of the mine was rendered inert during a series of two tests. The resultant data were then used to construct a CFD simulation of both injection tests. In addition, O2 depletion and gas leakage rates were quantified in the model and were compared to actual values. Once the model was calibrated, the sealed mine area was doubled and simulations were made with various injection rates and injection site locations to determine the impact on the time needed to render this area inert. This paper presents an overview of the PSA plant, the details of the gas injection tests and CFD modeling work.

Jan 1, 2010