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By T. Karlkvist, H. R. Kota, F. Andreas, B. I. Pålsson

"Separation of different calcium minerals have long been an interesting and challenging problem. In this investigation calcium mineral separation is examined by: microflotation, zeta potential measurement and adsorption, using novel collectors having two functional groups instead of one. In theory, by varying the distance between the functional groups, it could be possible to preferentially target one calcium mineral by matching the spatial distance between the sites on the mineral surface. In this investigation two new surfactants have been tested to estimate their ability to float apatite and/or calcite. Preliminary findings show that an increase in distance between the functional groups favors one mineral over the other, and this might be due to differences in the mineral surface structure. INTRODUCTION Apatite is a strategically important mineral which has both great value for industrial use as a precursor to phosphoric acid; and in the agricultural industry as an important source of phosphorous in fertilizers. This has led both the European Union and the United States to recognize it as an important resource for the future. Currently there is no lack of apatite in the world, but it is important to develop the beneficiation to ensure future supply. A common problem in apatite flotation is the selectivity towards calcite, which it is commonly associated with. Although calcite is an important industrial mineral its abundance makes it not usually worth to extract from apatite ores unless it is easy to separate1,2. Both apatite and calcite are semi soluble minerals with calcium as one of their constituents. The most common way to separate apatite and calcite is to use flotation. A process that involves making the mineral particles to extract from the system hydrophobic by adsorbing a collector on the mineral surface. One way to study collector adsorption on a mineral surface is by zeta potential measurements. The zeta potential is the charge at a slip plane a short distance from the surface. By measuring the zeta potential with and without the presence of collector it is possible to investigate if the collector is present at the surface or not, a change is indicative of collector adsorption. The zeta potential of fluorite, apatite and calcite without collector can be seen in Figure 1. The small difference in zeta potential between apatite and calcite shows the similarity in their surface properties and gives an indication of their separation difficulty. One additional problem with semi soluble minerals is their tendency to slightly dissolve in the pulp and thereby change the ionic composition of the solution. This makes separation and research problematic as the freed ions may readsorb on the mineral surface and interfere with the collector adsorption on the mineral surfaces3–5."

Jan 1, 2016

By D. Kwak, S. Han, J. Kim, Y. Lee

"INTRODUCTION In carbonate rocks, it is difficult to characterize due to the high degree of heterogeneity in pore geometry. Carbonate rocks have various types of pore systems such as fractures and vugs, and this heterogeneity should be considered for more realistic prediction of oil production in carbonate reservoirs. This study carried out water flooding experiments using five carbonate rock samples in order to observe the change of physical properties. Firstly, qualitative and quantitative analyses were conducted for each carbonate samples by use of XRD and XRF to evaluate the mineral content. All samples are mainly composed of CaCO3 and after that, the ICP experiments were carried out for the water passing through the carbonate. As a result, it was possible to measure the quantity of CaCO3, MgO, Fe2O3 component in water and due to this effect, the permeability of carbonate was altered especially in the front part of the core. Finally, after the carbonate was saturated by 30 API crude oil, water injection to enhance the oil recovery was repeated and it was confirmed that the oil-producing characteristics are different depending on the dissolution characteristics of carbonate rock samples. CORE SAMPLE ANALYSIS Porosity and Permeability Experiment Porosity and permeability were measured. The procedures are as follows (Figure 1). 1. Measure the diameter and length of the dry core using Vernier caliper. 2. Put the core in the core holder, run vacuum pump until the inlet and outlet pressure gauge equal. 3. Saturate the core using ISCO pump to inject water at 650 psi 4. Measure the amount of water and calculate the porosity 5. Set up the outlet pressure at 500 psi. 6. The flow rate measure when the equilibrium 7. Calculate the permeability through Darcy’s Law. 8. Cutting of core upstream and downstream about 13cm, and measure the each of permeability."

Jan 1, 2016

By Pascal Deschamps

"INTRODUCTION During the last decades, many underground facilities for the storage of hydrocarbons have been excavated worldwide and the technology is fully mature. Similarly to other underground structures, the initial basic design has to be adapted along with the work progress, in order to cope with the actual site conditions and in particular the geology, hydrogeology and associated rockmass quality. In addition, Client’s or underground Contractor’s constraints (such as resources availability, schedule or cost impact) may vary from design to construction and require last minute adjustments. Engineers are required to introduce flexibility and anticipation of unexpected situations (similar to the above-mentioned) while conceiving large underground facilities. Although most of the cases require only minor adaptations, crucial parts of the facility have sometimes to be considerably modified and reviewed. This article will present four cases evidencing how the design of one of these essential structures - the concrete plug – has been adjusted during site implementation without impairing the initial performances. Hydrodynamic containment The product containment of the unlined caverns discussed here is ensured by the principle of hydrodynamic containment. A permanent water flow is naturally or artificially maintained with an orientation toward the storage cavern and then, neither product-tight membrane nor lining are required. The hydraulic gradient (and the associated water flow lines), being directed from the surrounding mass toward the cavern, prevent from outward migration of the product. If the hydraulic gradient is not sufficient or if the water table is evidencing instability, water can be artificially injected into the rockmass through purpose-built boreholes, drilled from dedicated galleries. This water injection system, called the water curtain, is generally located several tens of meters above the level of the cavern. This principle is illustrated here after."

Jan 1, 2016

By Seth Pollak, Jon Hurt, Mark Havekost, David Vardiman, James Schick

"INTRODUCTION The Long Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF) Far Site Conventional Facilities are proposed to be sited at the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF) located within the former Homestake Gold Mine in Lead, South Dakota. The project involves excavation and support of three large caverns which will house four 10 kT fiducial volume liquid argon (LAr) neutrino detectors and cryogenic equipment, as well as numerous ancillary connecting drifts and chambers. This paper describes the geological setting of the project, the geotechnical investigation undertaken nearly a mile underground and the challenges associated with collection of reliable data in a high stress and geologically complex environment. The layout for the new facility will be presented, along with a description of some of the constraints that will impact construction, including shaft access and working within an operating research facility. THE LBNF PROJECT The global neutrino physics community is coming together to develop a leading-edge, dual-site experiment for neutrino science and proton decay studies, the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE). The facility required for this experiment, the Long-Baseline Neutrino Facility (LBNF), will be an internationally designed, coordinated and funded program, comprising the world's highest-intensity neutrino beam at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, IL and the infrastructure necessary to support massive deep underground cryogenic detectors 800 miles (1,300 km) downstream at the LBNF Far Site at the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF), in Lead, South Dakota. The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment is expected to achieve transformative discoveries, making definitive determinations of neutrino properties, the dynamics of the supernovae that produced the heavy elements necessary for life, and the possibility of proton decay. Neutrinos created by the LBNF beamline will travel on the 1,300 km (800 mi) path shown in Figure 1 leading straight through the earth's crust to intercept DUNE's massive, cutting-edge neutrino detector at the Sanford Lab. No tunnel is needed as neutrinos pass easily through soil and rock rarely interacting with the matter. The DUNE far detector will consist of four modules, each of which will be housed in a cryostat containing 17,000 metric tons of liquid argon target material, providing a 10kT fiducial volume. The LBNF Far Site Conventional Facilities project will excavate and fit out a set of four caverns 4850 ft underground in which to place them."

Jan 1, 2016

By Koji Nakanishi, Masayoshi Karasawa, Yasuhiro Morimoto

"Shin-Yokohama station (tentative name), one of the station of the Sotetsu - Tokyu through line (ST line), is under construction by the OPEN – CUT method. The Underground Soil–Cement Steel Diaphragm Wall is implemented as an earth retaining wall. This earth retaining wall is utilized as a main body of a subway station. It is the first time to utilize this earth retaining wall as the main body. There are two difficult issues for this project. One is that this station is planned under busy major road and there are many underground utilities, for example, an electrical transmission line. Because of that, construction area is limited. The other is that this station is located in a thick soft clay layer. This layer has a high risk of consolidation settlement because of draining during main excavation. Thus, high water tightness is required for this earth retaining wall. This paper reports design and construction methods for the Underground Soil–Cement Steel Diaphragm wall introduced as a part of the body of the subway station.1. OUTLINE OF SHIN-YOKOHAMA STATION 1-1. Location and structure of Shin-Yokohama Station Shin-Yokohama station is an intermediate station on the ST line connected to the Tokaido-Shinkansen bullet train, the JR-Yokohama line and the Yokohama Municipal Subway. Access to Tokyo and the Tokaido- Shinkansen from the eastern part of Yokohama city will be improved by this project. In addition, the number of estimated passengers of this station is one hundred thousand people/day because a soccer stadium (Nissan Stadium: 72,000 people), a huge indoor arena and a hotel are located in this area. This station consists of 4 stories and 3 spans (Max width; 29m, Depth; 33m, Length; 325.5m). Completion image is shown in Figure 2. Generally, stations have 1 platform and 2 trucks. But this station has 2 platforms and 3 tracks because some of ST line trains return at this station and a train deadheads from Hazawa station to this station in an emergency. This station is planned as 4 stories underground station, and the platform is on the lowest story. The reason why this station is in such a deeper position is to prevent the alignment from interfering with the Yokohama Municipal Subway station and foundation piles for bridge piers existing along the alignment. Even under the constraint conditions, earth covering should be shallow as much as possible. As a result, the tunnel edge is very close to the foundation pile, and the gap is only about 2m (Figure 3). In addition, passengers will be able to change trains easily from the ST line to the Yokohama Municipal Subway or vice versa at this station."

Jan 1, 2016

By Ingo Kaundinya

"INTRODUCTION Tunnels are important elements of the German federal road network which have to cope with an increasing traffic load especially of heavy goods vehicles. In order to ensure a high availability and safety level for these key infrastructures, big efforts are required by owners and operators in order to keep all infrastructures up to date. This mainly relates to current European regulations regarding tunnel safety (Directive 2004/54/EG) [1] and their national implementation, which must be fulfilled by many existing tunnels. In this context the German Federal Government spends more than 1.1 billion € for the structural and operational retrofitting of more than 120 existing road tunnels. As many of these projects have recently been finished or are still under progress, experiences and best practices could be reported. After the description of current requirements in national standards regarding structural fire protection, the paper gives an example for an upgrade of a tunnel’s fire protection by installing an additional fire protection system, which is a quite costly measure. Another possibility to fulfill current requirements regarding structural fire protection could be the numerical proof of sufficient bearing capacity of a structure. The influence of different fire loads and fire durations on the bearing capacity of typical road tunnel structures have been investigated in a research project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Transport (BMVI) and coordinated by the Federal Highway Research Institute (BASt). The results of this research project have been used to define a procedure how to investigate existing tunnels regarding structural fire protection. Finally, the research results have also been the basis for a current update of national standards for tunnel construction. REQUIREMENTS REGARDING STRUCTURAL FIRE PROTECTION The structural fire protection design of road tunnels is usually based on temperature-time curves of exposure to fire, for simplicity called ""fire curves"". The fire development after fire growth is illustrated with fire curves. Fire curves can be subdivided into a heating-up phase, a fully developed fire phase, and if applicable, into a cooling-off phase (cf. Figure 1). During the fully developed fire, the fire remains at a certain temperature level."

Jan 1, 2016

By Z. B. Karshigina, Ye. G. Bochevskaya, E. A. Sargelova, Z. S. Abisheva

At the present time of depletion of reserves of high grade rare earth deposits, it has become necessary to involve low grade raw materials in the production. Among the rare-earth deposits in Kazakhstan, the most advanced one is Kundybai. The mineralogical composition of ore is represented by the minerals: a-quartz SiO2, kaolinite Al2(Si2O5)(OH)4, muscovite KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH, F)2, albite Na(AlSi3O8), rutile TiO2, and hematite Fe2O3. It contains: 59.1–68.5% SiO2, 19.1–28.4% Al2O3, 7.2–10.3% Fe2O3, 0.51–0.84% TiO2, 0.10–2.32% CaO, 0.39–2.10% MgO, and some other elements. Rare earths are located in the clay part (kaolinite, goethite) in the ion-adsorbing form, and they are represented by the main ore mineral churchite - YPO4·2H2O. In the ore the amount of rare-earth elements (total REEs) varies from 210 to 600 ppm. Elements of the cerium group predominate (La, Nd, Ce, Sm, Pr) and the yttrium group is represented by Y, Gd and Dy. Extremely thin intergrowth and accumulation of REEs in clay minerals cause difficulties in their recovery using flotation and gravitation beneficiating methods. The purpose of this work is the development of an extraction method for the main mineral components of ore with transfer of the total REEs into the solution with high extractive efficiency. Results of the experimental work into high-temperature processing (hereinafter referred to as sulphatization) of ore by sulphuric acid with subsequent dual-mode water leaching of the sulphate product (sinter) are presented in this manuscript. The influence on the ore sulphatization process of some physical and chemical parameters: liquid-to-solid (L/S) ratio (0.36–0.86 cm3/g), temperature (100 – 500°?), concentration of sulphuric acid (3.0–18.62 mol/L) and duration (0.5–2.5 h) was studied. Optimal technological parameters of the process were determined to be: L/S ratio 0.36–0.46 cm3/g; temperature 500°?; concentration of H2SO4 9.0 mol/L; soaking time 1.5 h. Under these conditions it is possible to obtain extractions of ~ 85% REE, as well as 58% aluminium and 10% iron. XRD and IR-spectroscopy analyses were used to determine the material constitution of sulphated cakes obtained under optimal conditions. It was found that the primary minerals are quartz and muscovite; however different sodium aluminium silicates and albite minerals are present as well. In the future, it is proposed that the leach residue cakes are processed into precipitated silica (“white soot”).

Jan 1, 2016

By Nirmal Weerasekara, Lian X. Liu, The University of Queensland, Weiguo Xie, Benjamin Bonfils, Ping Yu

A mill model structure based on the population mass balance framework incorporating breakage characteristics, slurry and solids transport, product classification and discharge and energy consumption was reported in XXVII IMPC and named the Generic Tumbling Mill Model Structure Version I (GTMMS I). In this work, a new 4D (four dimensional) appearance function sub-model based on the experimental results of the JK Rotary Breakage Tester (JK RBT) was developed to describe the breakage characteristics and was applied to this new model structure. The newly developed 4D appearance function model has fewer fitting parameters and is more generic in nature. Most importantly, it is applicable to both high and low energy impact breakage. It is therefore much more versatile in comparison to the existing JKMRC t10- tn appearance function and the size-dependent JK M-p-q t10-tn appearance function. In addition, the Discrete Element Method (DEM) energy distribution model was integrated into the new model structure. With DEM results providing energy distribution information inside the mill directly, the selection function and the back-calculation method used in the existing JKSimMet modelling method are not needed in this model structure. With the above two revolutionary innovations, the previous model structure was upgraded to the Generic Tumbling Mill Model Structure Version II (GTMMS II). Furthermore, the new model structure is dynamic in nature with time-stepping technique for non-steady-state simulation. A case of the dynamic grinding of a SAG mill was studied to validate the GTMMS II. The model simulation results agreed well with the plant data. With the newly developed 4D appearance function model, the incorporation of DEM energy distribution and transport function, the GTMMS II is an important step forward towards mechanistic modelling of tumbling mills.

Jan 1, 2016

By B. C. Tripathy, S. K. Padhy, R. K. Paramguru, Pinak Patnaik

"Cobalt is regarded as technology enabling metal among the less abundant metals found in the earth crust. Electrodeposition of the metal from aqueous sulphate solutions is the preferred technology for its commercial production. Certain additives are added in the electrolytic bath during electrodeposition for the production of uniform, smooth and bright deposits of cobalt metal with higher current efficiencies and lower energy consumptions. A detailed investigation has been carried out to determine the effect of additive Sodium octyl sulphate (SOS) on the electrodeposition of cobalt. The results indicated that the additive apart from increasing the current efficiency enhanced the quality of cobalt electrodeposits. A maximum current efficiency of 98.4% was achieved at 10 mg/L SOS. The presence of SOS in the electrolytic bath did not result in any noticeable change in the crystal orientation of the cobalt electrodeposits except at higher concentrations (50 g/L) of the additive. Scanning electron micrographs indicate that smooth, compact and uniform deposits of cobalt were obtained at 10 mg/L of the additive beyond which there is detoriation in the quality of deposits. Polarisation of the cathode was seen in the presence of SOS. The effect of SOS on the electro kinetic parameters: Tafel slope (b), transfer coefficient (a) and exchange current density (I0) has also been investigated.INTRODUCTIONCobalt is recognised to be a strategic metal among the various base metals, owing to its numerous applications in various industries. Cobalt as a metal finds its use in the preparation of rechargeable batteries, as an alloying component in the manufacture of space craft and jet engines, as a drying agent for paint varnishes, ground coats for porcelain enamels and in the manufacture of the catalysts for the petroleum and chemical industries (Davis, 2000). Although there is a huge demand of the metal the supply of the metal is limited due to its scarcity in the earth crust. The metal comprises of only 0.02% of the earth’s crust for which the metal is recovered from various ores of nickel and copper as a byproduct (Hawkins, 1998). The present day techniques for cobalt production includes mostly hydrometallurgical methods which are preferred over the earlier used pryometallurgcial methods carried out for the metal production. Almost 70% of the world’s cobalt produced currently is from hydrometallurgical techniques in which electrodeposition of the metal from aqueous solutions is the final step for metal production (Verney, 1988). The most preferred route for electrodeposition of cobalt metal involves a sulphate medium (Das and Subbaiah, 1984; Lenthall and Bryson, 1997; Sharma et al., 2005)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Jeroen van Eldert, Daniel Johansson, Henrik Ittner, Håkan Schunnesson

"Numerous aspects of underground construction, from structural stability to construction costs, depended on the tunnel quality, including blast damage and the Excavation Damage Zone. Accurately quantifying the extent and severity of damaged rock is a problem. Recent technical developments in the field of Measurement While Drilling (MWD), including software for on-board logging and on-site analysis, have shown potential for rock-mass characterization. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and P-wave velocity measurement have also improved and show similar potential. This paper explores the use of MWD, GPR and P-wave velocity measurements and uses them in techniques for excavation damage characterization and prediction. The paper is based on data collected from a small underground waste-collection site in central Stockholm, Sweden. The data is correlated against rock-mass characteristics and their responses are evaluated. Results indicate potential for excavation damage characterization for all tested techniques, which could minimize blasting damage and improve the over-all tunnel quality. 1 INTRODUCTION During underground excavation the rock mass is influenced in many ways. The Excavation Damage Zone (EDZ) is a result of these influences. The EDZ can be defined by an irreversible change in rock mass properties, for example increased permeability. EDZ is influenced by the excavation method, the rock mass properties and the in-situ stresses in the area of the tunneling. Since the 1990s research has been done on the EDZ by Emsley et al. (1997), Christiansson et al. (2005), Olsson et al. (2009), Ouchterlony et al. (2009), Ittner et al. (2014), and Siren et al. (2015). Based on past literature the EDZ have in this paper been separated in the following subzones: 1. Failure Zone or over-break is the area outside the planned tunnel profile, including the Look-Out and hole deviation. This zone consists of fracture networks (both natural and blasting-induced), that caused rock fall-outs. The extent of the over-break can be determined by volumetric scanning and photogrammetry and the half cast factor can be used as a damage indicator. 2. The Damaged Zone is split into three parts and but the quantity and depth of damage is difficult to measure. Although it can be visualized by sawing of rock slices in the tunnel wall (Olsson et al. 2009), diamond coring (DC) or P-wave velocity reduction (Jern 2001): a. Inner Damage Zone (Crush Zone): It is located directly around the drill hole, and is caused by the shock-wave energy of the detonation. The micro fractures in the Crush Zone produce a white-wash (rock dust) in the half cast. b. Transition Zone: This zone consists of micro fractures that connect and form macro fractures, both radially and parallel to the tunnel wall. The macro fractures are caused by the gas expansion during the detonation of the explosive; it increases the pressure in the (micro) fractures and creates the macro fractures. Seismic reflection, rock slicing and core drilling can be used for the examination. c. Progressing Zone: In this zone the existing radial fractures propagate due to the increase gas pressure inside these macro fractures. Examination methods are seismic reflection, rock slicing and core drilling. In addition, the Peak Particle Velocity (vibrations) could be used to estimate the depth (Tesarik et al. 2011)."

Jan 1, 2016

By Richard Emberley, Timothy Shaw, José L. Torero, Jurij Karlovsek, Timothy Gibson

"Tunnel closures are highly undesirable and the lengthiest are generally attributed to structural failures (e.g. Mont Blanc). Although historical data shows structural failures are closely linked to fire, design parameters for tunnel safety are not well defined. Current research has focused on defining the fire heat release rate and temperature, but these parameters cannot be easily used to determined structural performance. The energy transferred to the structure, the heat flux, is required but current literature lacks these values. Full scale experiments were undertaken on passenger vehicles resulting in heat fluxes between 20-70kW/m2. Analysis shows a vehicle fire’s duration is closely linked to its mass. Further analysis shows small vehicle fires can be scaled as a function of the tunnel diameter and the characteristic height of the desired vehicle. The present work provides engineers an appropriate design methodology to undertake informed thermal-structural analysis to minimize the risk of tunnel structural failure.INTRODUCTION Quantifying the effects of a tunnel fire depends on many factors such as the type of occupants, their vehicles and spacing, ventilation conditions and the geometric shape of the tunnel (Ingason and Lonnermark 2011). For design engineers investigating the thermal-structural performance of a tunnel, these factors are typically converted into spatial and temporal temperature distributions (Usmani et al. 2001) using various design curves such as those of ISO834-1, Hydrocarbon, Rijkswaterstaat (RWS) or RABT-ZTV (Promat 2013). However, to define a temperature profile through a structural element these curves require a heat transfer model that incorporates an appropriate boundary condition. The appropriate boundary condition is the net heat flux which is the result of a complex energy balance. For use in heat transfer calculations the net heat flux must account for the tunnel geometry as well as thermal properties of a given structural element and all other surfaces and mediums affecting the transfer of heat (Torero 2014)."

Jan 1, 2016

By K. M. Mohamed, I. B. Tulu

"Failures of coal ribs are major hazards in underground coal mines. For the period of 2010 to 2014, rib falls were the leading cause of groundfall fatalities and accounted for 35% of all groundfall-related fatalities. Currently, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is conducting a research project to develop an engineering-based design methodology for rib control in coal mines to reduce rib fall accidents and fatalities in underground coal mines. Numerical models can be used as part of the design methodology provided the models are appropriately calibrated and verified. The paper presents a coal rib model to simulate the mechanism of the coal deformation and fracturing that can lead to stress-driven rib falls. The proposed coal rib model was calibrated against published data from an instrumented rib site at the West Cliff mine in Australia. Fracturing of the coal rib was defined by critical values of shear strain of the coal material and rib displacement. A critical plastic shear strain of 2.8% and a sudden increase of rib displacement of 30 to 45 mm were sufficient to develop a fracture plane in the rib model. Accordingly, a discontinuous rib deformation was achieved and it compared favorably against field monitoring data. INTRODUCTION Coal ribs are the vertical walls of coal formed when entries are developed in a coal bed. Failures of coal ribs are a major hazard in underground coal mines. Furthermore, failing ribs can contribute indirectly to roof and floor instability by increasing opening widths across intersections and entryways. Over the last 18 years, there has been a continual occurrence of injuries and fatalities in underground coal mines due to rib falls. For the period of 2010 to 2014, rib falls (excluding longwall face and bursts) were the leading cause of ground fall fatalities and accounted for 35% of all groundfall-related fatalities [1]. Despite the threat of rib falls, the amount of rib falls and rib support research conducted in the U.S. is limited compared with what has been done in pillar and roof support design. Currently, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) is conducting a research project to develop an engineering-based design methodology for rib control in coal mines to minimize the number of rib fall accidents and fatalities in underground coal mines."

Jan 1, 2016

By Apostolos Vrakas, Georgios Anagnostou

"INTRODUCTION The small strain assumption routinely made in tunnel analyses remains sufficient from an engineering point of view as long as convergences do not exceed 10%. More specifically, small strain theory assumes that deformations are so small (in relation to the size of the underground opening) that any geometric change in the continuum can be disregarded (Fig. 1a). In fact, however, the geometry is updated during loading (or unloading) according to large strain theory and thus equilibrium and stiffness are evaluated on the deformed configuration of the continuum (Fig. 1b).In problems involving large deformations, where the undeformed and the deformed tunnel geometry differ significantly, small strain theory leads to erroneous and sometimes even nonsensical results (i.e. it can predict wall displacements even greater than the excavated radius under conditions of very low stiffness and strength, high in situ stress and low support pressure). This can easily be verified from the widely applied relationships for the ground response curve. For example, in the ideal case of linearly elastic behaviour, the convergence of an unsupported opening equals (1+?) s0 / E (where E, ? and s0 denote the Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio and initial isotropic stress, respectively) and is greater than 100% for E < (1+?) s0. Although convergences are less than 10% in the great majority of tunnelling projects, very large deformations may take place when tunnelling through weak rocks under a high overburden (Fig. 2). This paper will first present a very simple and practicable way to account for large strains, based entirely on the results of routine small strain analyses, and will subsequently show the importance of addressing large strains in tunnel analysis and design with reference to three typical case studies of tunnelling in squeezing ground."

Jan 1, 2016

By D. Kruse, M. Sanaei

"A three dimensional nonlinear finite element model was constructed to simulate and analyze the behavior of large diameter segmentally lined shafts when subjected to seismic waves. To reduce computation time, a less complex shell model was also constructed. Transient excitation was applied to the supported nodes of both models, at the base of the shaft, with a time-function representing the 1994 Northridge earthquake. The models are developed at the end of an original phased construction-stage analysis of the shaft. Displacements, forces and moments are monitored and compared during the analyses steps. During the initial 15 seconds of the earthquake, the top and bottom of the shaft show similar displacements. The maximum horizontal displacement within the shaft is approximately 3.5 inches in the solid model and the shell model results conform to this by a factor of 50%. Keywords: Segmentally Lined Shaft, Soil Structure Interaction, Seismic Analysis, Finite Element Modeling, Ground Modification INTRODUCTION TO SEGMENTALLY LINED SHAFTS Large diameter segmentally lined shafts (SLS) are underground systems, constructed sequentially using precast concrete segments to form a ring which provides both temporary earth support during excavation and permanent structural support. The segments are connected via alignment pins, bolts, packer material and other structural components that ensure the continuity of the SLS. In this analysis, the construction process uses a top-down sequence wherein each soil layer is excavated, damp-proofing is installed and concrete segments are assembled to form each ring. This process is repeated until design depths are achieved completing the shaft. It is known that cylindrical structures sustain lateral (earth) pressure mainly through the mechanism of hoop-stress. As Timoshenko’s ring theory goes, a cylinder shell structure is prone to buckling under external pressure [1]. In typical designs of small diameter shafts and tunnel linings with small diameter to wall thickness ratios, nonlinear buckling analysis (i.e., nonlinear geometric analysis) is not considered, since the buckling capacities for those structures are much higher than typical pressures encountered at their design depths. However, in shafts with large diameter to wall thickness ratios, buckling could become a critical issue. In any given mode, as buckling occurs in a ring, some sections of the structure move inward while alternating sections protrude. Although the presence of the surrounding soil could mitigate the buckling by resisting the movement (Soil structure interaction) seismic loads can cause ground movements and lateral pressures, exceeding the capacity of the structure. It is therefore essential to design the load bearing capacities of the shaft to minimize the possibility of any catastrophic failure due to earthquakes. This study explores the structural response of the SLS when subjected to seismic loads."

Jan 1, 2016

By H. R. Manouchehri, A. Weh

"High voltage electric pulse comminution (SELFRAG) relies on inducing electrical breakdown that occurs when the resistivity of a dielectric is insufficient to completely block all transfer of electricity while the conductivity is not high enough to fully accommodate the flow of electricity without considerable changes to the crystal lattice. The technology is based on introducing the electrical discharges into solids immersed in water and placed between two electrodes. The technology has received significant attention since investigations have revealed the potential for fully fragmenting particles or pre-weakening rocks in order to reduce the energy consumption in comminution practices, improve liberation and potentially increase the recovery in mineral processing. Mineralogical analysis of samples showed possible liberation at coarser sizes by high voltage breakage in comparison with conventional mechanical comminution.This study explored the potential of implementing SELFRAG to treat the Sandvik’s Mittersill mine tungsten ore (scheelite) for recovery improvement. Accordingly, standard SELFRAG tests were conducted on four samples from the tungsten process plant to evaluate the energy-breakage relation and potential to liberate the value minerals at coarser size fraction for recovery improvement. The size reduction of the ore after processing with SELFRAG revealed that size deportment occurs at 0.4, 0.2, and 0.1 mm, which indicated potential liberation of gangue and target minerals at respective sizes. In comparison with conventional milling, the difference is the deportment of values into 0.4 mm sizes, which was, to some extent, confirmed by SEM liberation analysis. However, more tests are needed to proof the concept. The study has indicated that, despite consuming more energy in comparison with conventional mechanical comminution, there are promising prospects in liberating the values at coarser fraction and improve recovery by making use of SELFRAG. The energy consumption can be reduced through customized generator and equipment setup, which must be further investigated."

Jan 1, 2016

By Seokwon Jeon, Ho-Young Jeong

"Various numerical methods have been tried to estimate the cutting forces of a TBM disc cutter. In this study, SPH/FEM coupled method was newly employed to improve the traditional FEM analysis. The disc cutter and rock were modeled by Lagrange and SPH codes, respectively. The numerical cutting test was carried out for representative Korean rocks with different cutting conditions. The results show that the cutting forces obtained from numerical simulation had a good agreement with those from LCM tests, and that applying SPH method to rock cutting model has advantages and improvement compared to traditional FEM method. Erosion criterion and erosion limit were not required to simulate the rock fragmentation process, and the cutting forces from the numerical simulation was more stable and accurate. The results indicate that the numerical simulation can be successfully used to estimate cutting performance of a TBM. 1. INTRODUCTION Various numerical studies have been carried out to accurately simulate the limitations of linear cutting machine (LCM) tests. Numerical modelling methods have advantages comparing with full scale tests in terms of cost and time involved. Many numerical methods have been used to simulate rock cutting process by different cutting tools and the studies are summarized in Table 1.In 2D simulations listed in Table 1, because they do not take account of rolling force and horizontal rolling mechanism of a disc cutter, indenter was selected as cutting tool in their modelling. For these reason, 2D modelling is not suitable for rock cutting modelling using a disc cutter. In contrast, 3D numerical models can take account of the indentation process by thrust force and penetration processes controlled by rolling force."

Jan 1, 2016

By Erica J. Wanless, Ghislain Bournival, Seher Ata, Jose Hamilton Tavares

In froth flotation valuable particles are captured by bubbles and transferred to a froth layer where bubbles are in close proximity. Bubble coalescence frequently occurs in flotation, especially in the froth layer. The coalescence of two bubbles causes a release of energy, which may expel particles from the bubble surface. A series of experiments were carried out to determine the effect of bubble interfacial properties on the detachment of particles upon the coalescence of capillary-held bubbles of 2 mm in size. The interfacial properties of the bubbles were changed by the addition of low molecular weight alcohols, namely 1-pentanol or methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC). Using esterified glass particles (? = 43 °) with a 10 % and 90 % cumulative passing diameter of 47.2 and 92.5 µm, respectively, as model particles, it was found a certain concentration of frother, different for each additive, is needed in order to observe a reduction in the detachment of particles. In the presence of frother, the detachment was evaluated at approximately 65 % which was a considerable reduction in the detachment compared with the value of approximately 85 % found in the absence of frother. Frother molecules changed the properties of the airwater interface. Upon the coalescence of two bubbles, the release of energy caused the merged bubble to oscillate; effectively resulting in the detachment of particles. The addition of frothing agents augmented the elasticity of the bubbles, which appeared to be related to the detachment of particles. Whereas frothing agents are generally used to prevent bubble coalescence and stabilise the froth phase, only transient stability is imparted. The results suggested that an additional role of frothers in flotation is to decrease the detachment of particles from bubble surfaces. The type and concentration of frother can be strategically selected to improve metallurgical recovery as an economic incentive.

Jan 1, 2016

By Nasri Munfah, Raymond E. Sandiford

"Superstorm Sandy (Sandy) created a storm surge that inundating many of the tunnels that pass beneath the Hudson and East Rivers. The tunnels are vital infrastructure links for the economy of New York City and the northeast region. The sea water, which contains highly reactive salts, caused significant damage to electrical and mechanical systems. In addition, the salt water inundation left corrosive precipitants on the tunnel linings and on and within electrical duck banks. After the salt water was evacuated from the tunnels, condition assessments were performed using a state of the art approach involving high resolution laser scanning, digital imaging, and thermal imaging. These scans were performed prior to hands on inspections. The damage assessment concluded that, although the tunnel structural linings were not damaged, the interior elements of the tunnels needed major rehabilitation to arrest the continual deterioration of the structures. This paper details the state of the art approach used for these tunnel inspections. INTRODUCTION On October 29, 2012 Super Storm Sandy flooded a large number of both transit and vehicular tunnels in the New York Metropolitan area. The region’s transportation network was severely disrupted. The storm damage is estimated to have been in excess of $30 billion, and with the tunnels out of service, the local economy was losing hundreds of millions in economic activity. Restoration of these tunnels was a very high priority and the resulting expedited restoration process did not always provide adequate time for comprehensive condition surveys. This resulted in many of these surveys being conducted after service restoration. Inspecting highly trafficked transit tunnels is challenging and the logistics of working in short night outages led to a rethinking of the conventional inspection approach. Traditionally, visual and tactile methods are first used to inspect tunnels and then quite often followed by LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) scanning and perhaps infra-red scanning. For multi-mile tunnels, the time required to visually map tunnel features can be quite extensive. By performing the scanning first and then performing the visual and tactile inspections, one is able to use the scan data to identify the specific areas that need detailed inspections. This approach was used quite successfully for a number of the NYC tunnels."

Jan 1, 2016

By Daniel W. H. Su

"This paper presents results from a recent study conducted to evaluate the effects of longwall-induced stresses and deformations on the mechanical integrity of shale gas wells drilled over a longwall abutment pillar. The primary objective is to demonstrate that a properly constructed gas well in a standard longwall mining abutment pillar can maintain mechanical integrity during and after mining operations. Successful designs would allow for the safe recovery of both coal and gas reserves. Major elements of this comprehensive study include: (1) modeling of rock movements to predict impacts on gas wells, (2) measurements of actual rock movements at the surface and in the subsurface, (3) measurements of actual impacts on test wells designed similarly to real shale gas wells, ( 4) comparison of modeling results to actual rock movements to validate the model, and (5) employing the validated models to evaluate various casing and cementing designs to minimize casing deformations and absorb longwall-induced strains along the intermediate and production casings.A study site was selected over a southwestern Pennsylvania coal mine, which extracts 1,500-ft-wide longwall faces under about 600 feet of cover. Four test wells and four monitoring wells were drilled and installed over an abutment pillar with 125-ft by 275-ft centers. The four test wells were drilled to a depth of 642 ft, or 42 ft below the Pittsburgh seam, and were designed like a real shale gas well, except that only three casings (namely the surface, water protection and coal protection casings) were installed in each well. Casing steel grades, wellbore diameters and annular spaces were purposely varied in each of the four test wells to evaluate the effect of different well designs. The four monitoring wells - one vertical extensometer and three in-place inclinometers (IPI) - were drilled to different depths to measure the vertical settlement and horizontal displacements as a result of longwall mining on both sides of the abutment pillar. In addition to the test wells and monitoring wells, surface subsidence measurements and underground coal pillar pressure measurements were conducted as the 1,500-ft-wide longwall panels on the south and north sides of the abutment pillar mined by."

Jan 1, 2016

By Panagiotis Chryssanthakis

"The aim of this study is to give a better understanding for the performance of the composite material RRS and the synergy effect of its components under different stress regimes and while an excavation face advances during tunneling. The lower part of the Q-system scale (i.e. Q-values of 0.4 or less for a tunnel span of 10m) is commonly used for tunnel applications in softer rock formations. This is implied in the updated Q-chart, where the dimensioning of rock support by using Reinforced Ribs of Shotcrete (RRS) comprises the use of fiber reinforced shotcrete, S(fr), rock bolts and shotcreted beams reinforced with steel rebars. In this study, an effort has been made to simulate RRS in a numerical code and to study its behaviour in a real case study. A double tube, triple lane tunnel in weathered tuff has been chosen as reference material for testing RRS under changing load. A rather extensive parametric study has been run by using the same key input rock mass parameters and three different in situ stress regimes (sH/sv =2, sH/sv =1 and sH/sv =0.5). Changes have only been made to the RRS key input parameters in order to simulate the changing loads during the face excavation process in tunneling. The critical part of this numerical modelling work that is under investigation in this study under each stress regime, is the period just after the excavation: i.e 4 hours; 16 hours after excavation; and finally after the complete curing (28 days) of the cement based components. The RRS are installed in three consecutive numerical steps as follows: a) the application of S(fr) on the rock surface in order to even it up for the RRS application; b) radial bolting; and c) installation of the reinforcing steel rebars, that form the reinforced beam. The results are varying and are strongly dependent on the imposed stress regime and they show in general the following tendencies: The axial forces on S(fr) show that S(fr) is almost overloaded during the first 4 hours in all 3 stages. More particularly: For the case with sH/sv =2 a) the axial forces on S(fr) and on the steel rebars are reduced after 16 hours and 28 days; b) the same is observed on the shear stresses in S(fr) and on steel rebars, they are decreasing after 16 hours and 28 days; and c) the bolts loads are almost unchanged. For the case with sH/sv =1 a) the axial forces on the S(fr) are reduced after 16 hours and 28 days; b) the same is observed for the axial and shear stresses, as well as moments on the steel rebars, they are decreasing after 16 hours and 28 days; and c) the bolts loads are almost unchanged."

Jan 1, 2016