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By J. W. Watkins

This report describes in detail methods of making corrosion tests and chemical analyses that have been used extensively and satisfactorily in a study of plants in which various surface, waters and brines are conditioned and used for water flooding, brine disposal, and reservoir-pressure maintenance in Kansas, Oklahoma, and North Texas. The tests and analyses described were designed and adapted for use in the field in determining the relative corrosive and plugging tendencies of waters from various sources conditioned by different methods. Although the described methods were developed and used in testing oil-field waters in the Midcontinent oil-producing area of the United States, these same methods should be equally applicable to testing oil-field or highly mineralized waters throughout the world. Many of the methods used have been discussed by the writer (1)2/ previously, and some of them have been used for similar work in other laboratories. Early in the development of the practice of the subsurface injection of brines for disposal and increasing the recovery of oil, it became evident that different methods of chemical treatment and conditioning equipment would have to be devised to sustain desired injection rates into water-input wells. These changes became necessary because the highly mineralized waters produced with petroleum from deep formations became chemically unstable when pumped to the surface, owing to loss of dissolved gases as pressure and temperature dropped to atmospheric and to the contact with atmospheric oxygen at the surface.

Jan 1, 1954

By Frank J. Wiebelt, Spangler Hicker

The Iron Mountain investigations were part of a comprehensive program for making a national inventory of raw materials used in the production of steel. A tentative program of core drilling by the Bureau of Mines was set up for exploration of more promising iron deposits. Iron Mountain was selected as worthy of investigation because it could serve as a potential source of ore for the war-created steel plant at Fontana, Calif. The deposits were reported on by an engineer in October 1943. The purpose of the project was to determine the lateral and vertical extent of ore bodies and to obtain accurate material data on them.

Apr 1, 1948

By Jon K. Ahlness

The Bureau of Mines investigated technologies for testing the integrity of in situ leach mining wells, as required by environmental regulations. To test for leaks, inflatable packers were used to seal the well casing. Laboratory testing determined that the packers could contain a casing pressure up to 50 to 60 psi (345 to 414 kPa) less than the packer inflation pressure. Single-and double-packer configurations were successfully field-tested in 32 wells ranging from 500 to 530 ft (153 to 162 m) in depth. A rigid pipeline and a hoist truck were used to run the packers in and out of the wells for the double-packer tests, which averaged 2-1/4 h each. In an effort to decrease the time of the rigid-pipe double-packer test. a self-contained trailer-mounted test system was designed and built. It utilizes a winch and steel cable to run the packers in and out of the well and high-pressure nylon tubing for packer inflation. This system was successfully field-tested in eight wells averaging 650 ft (198 m) in depth and resulted in a time savings of 13 pct and an operator-hour reduction of 42 pct.

Jan 1, 1985

By S. M. Shelton, A. L. Engel

The carnotite deposits of western Colorado and adjacent sections of Utah and Arizona were formerly an important source of radium and uranium until displaced by the exploitation of foreign deposits in the Congo and northern Canada . Recently interest has been renewed in domestic carnotite ores as a source of vanadium . Carnotite is a canary - yellow, crystalline , pulverulent mineral occurring in sandstones in the Colorado - Utah district as an incrustation on the faces of joints and fractures and deposited around and between individual sand grains , often strongly adhering to the surface of the grains . Chemically, it is a variable combination of potassium, uranium , and vanadium oxides with water of crystallization . It is soft and friable , and occurs in fine - grained or earthy form . In spite of a specific gravity of 4.1 , gravity concentration has not proved practical as a means of beneficiation because of the earthy texture of the mineral . Vanadiferous sandstones occur with minerals ranging from roscoelite (vanadium mica) , containing little uranium , to high- uranium and low -vanadium carnotite . There is considerable local variation in the texture of the ores . The treatment of carnotite ores has been described previously , with attention directed to the elimination of waste in mining and the extraction of radium . The suggested methods included those suitable for the recovery of vanadium , since both radium and vanadium occur in the same minerals . Moore and Kithil suggested crushing from 40- to 80 - mesh with rolls , accompanied by a rubbing action to loosen the carnotite adhering to the sand grains . Fine grinding was to be avoided because it diluted the final product too much . The crushed and rubbed material was to be washed and

May 1, 1942

By J. M. Singer

The Bureau of Mines investigated the threshold of dispersal of monolayers and piles of rock dust, anthracite, and Pittsburgh seam coal dust in a small wind tunnel that simulated a coal mine gallery, with the objective of preventing or limiting the formation of flammable dust clouds. The effect of selected variables on entrainment velocity was examined. Mode of entrainment and flow processes in the wake region of dust configurations were investigated by means of high-speed motion pictures. Significant results were as follows: 1. Local minimum air velocities required for dispersal were only slightly higher for shallow dust ridges than for dust particles. 2. Minimum velocities for entrainment of dust particles from smooth glass and coal surfaces increased in the order rock dust, anthracite, Pittsburgh seam coal. 3. The mechanism for dispersal of dust poles depended significantly on dust pile geometry, cohesiveness of dust, bulk density and compaction of dust, adhesive surface, and vibrations perturbing the supporting surface.

Jan 1, 1969

By Craig C. Hustwit

A pilot-scale treatment study was conducted on a copper-zinc bearing metal mine drainage using a pipeline treatment system called the In-Line System (ILS). The objective of this U.S. Bureau of Mines study was to determine whether the ILS could be extended from the treatment of coal mine drainages to the treatment of metal mine drainages. Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2), quick lime (CaO), and caustic soda (NaOH) were used to neutralize the drainage. A novel reagent slurry of Ca(OH)2 and type C fly ash was also evaluated. Except for Ca(OH)2-fly ash slurry, treatment performance was evaluated for all reagents at pH values of 7,8,9, and 10. The Ca(OH)2-fly ash slurry was evaluated at a pH of 10. All reagents tested neutralized the metal mine drainage and substantially reduced the dissolved metal concentrations. It was concluded that the ILS could be useful in the treatment of metal mine drainages.

Jan 1, 2010

By P. G. Clites

The Bureau of Mines developed techniques for induction melting of titanium in a split, water-cooled copper crucible. Calcium fluoride, which was used as an inert slag cover during melting, formed an insulating layer of solid slag between the ingot and the crucible wall. This thin layer of slag effectively insulated the ingot from the crucible and prevented the molten metal from shorting across the slits between adjacent segments of the crucible. The technique provides a means of melting loose titanium sponge and scrap and eliminates the need for fabricating a consumable electrode. This report describes the equipment developed and compares ingots produced from two varieties of titanium sponge, from titanium scrap, and from previously melted titanium with ingots prepared by vacuum-arc melting and electroslag melting. A melting scheme was also proposed and evaluated whereby loose titanium sponge was consolidated into a first-melt ingot for vacuum-arc remelting.

Jan 1, 1969

By F. X. Tartaron

This report describes work done by the Bureau of Mines to simplify the design and operation of the vortex cone, a new device for prerefining blast furnace iron. Three new apparatus arrangements were tested. Results with one of these arrangements average 74.2 pct silicon removal and 61 pet oxygen efficiency (disregarding removal of carbon and manganese).

Jan 1, 1965

By Robert M. Doerr

Isothermal oxidation kinetics were determined for three grades of Ni and for 99.99 percent Co in Ca and in air from 800° to 1,200° C. The oxidation reactions followed approximately the parabolic rate law. For 99.99 percent Ni in 02 at 1,200° C, the parabolic rate constant was 2 mg cm-2 hr-2. For 99.99 percent Co in dry air, the constant ranged from 1 mg cm-2 hr-2 at 800° C to 18 mg cm-2 hr-2 at 1,200° C; for 99.99 percent Co in 02 the constant was 2 mg cm -2 hr-2 at 800° C and 10 mg cm-2 hr-2 at 1,000° C. For 99 percent Ni in dry air, the constant ranged from 0.2 mg cm 2 hr-2 at 800° C to 3 mg cm 2 hr-2 at 1,200° C. By X-ray diffraction measurements, only divalent oxides were found in the scales. Volumetric and quartz-helix gravimetric methods were used. The volumetric apparatus was designed to permit less stringent restrictions on the corrosion specimens; it was also more convenient to use. The agreement between the weight gain determined gravimetrically and the 02 consumption determined volumetrically was not good enough for direct comparison of gravimetric and volumetric results.

Jan 1, 1963

By Howard C. Pettibone

Mine safety personnel reported occurrences of excessive "glove-fingering" and other problems with resin-grouted roof bolt installa tions. To study these problems, the Bureau of Mines designed a test plan to (1) obtain baseline information on several resin cartridges and (2) investigate the variables involved in the installation of a resin bolt. Three brands of resin representative of the industry in January 1983 were selected for cartridge evaluation. The installation variables selected for study were the method of installation, the hole depth, and the hole annulus. These variables were studied by installing a series of bolts in concrete blocks using different values for each variable. Results of the research show overspinning the resin may cause problems, but they can be avoided by using the spin times recommended by manufac-turers. Excessive glove-fingering is not a problem if the manufacturer-recommended installation procedures are followed.

Jan 1, 1987

By Bernadette C. Michalski

Mineral raw materials, labor, capital, and technology form the basis of industrial production. The augmentation of one or all of the elements--labor, capital, and technology--will result in industrial growth. Thus, an increase in the labor force would increase output. A similar result would be achieved by expanding capital investment and supplying labor with more equipment. Finally, industrial growth can be achieved by introducing more productive methods and techniques born of technological advancement. The Soviet Union has employed these elements in many patterns to catapult from an agricultural to an industrial economy in four decades. The early history of the Soviet Union was marked by limited capital and borrowed technology, forcing the Soviets to concentrate on an abundant labor reserve to support the industrial program. The source of this reserve was the rural population. In [1928], 80 percent of the working population was employed in agriculture. This figure dropped to 43 percent by 1956, whereas industrial employment in the same period increased from 8 to 31 percent.3/

Jan 1, 1960

Air pollution control regulation$ already implemented or being considered for implementation require substantial investment of capital to remove the sulfur oxides from copper, lead, and zinc smelter gases. There will be an attendant increase in production costs and possibly an associated increase in the price of these metals to the consumer. The total investment and any resultant metal price increase will depend upon the control regulations that ultimately will be adopted by the individual States. Controversy has arisen between the metals industry and governmental control agencies regarding the status of stack gas desulfurization technology and the ability of industry to control sulfur oxide emissions to the degree proposed by some of the more stringent regulations currently under consideration. This paper evaluates the problems involved in achieving various degrees of control over smelter sulfur oxide emissions and the technology available to accomplish the task of assuring clean air. The estimated cost of compliance is reviewed for the copper, zinc, and lead industries, but principal at tent ion is given to the copper situation.

Jan 1, 1971

By E. D. Gardner

This paper discusses prospecting for lode gold and lists the principal lags and. regulations pertaining to locating; lode claims on public lands. It is a preprint of a part of a bulletin being prepared by the United States Bureau o Mines entitled "Equipping, Developing and Operating Small Gold Mines". The increased interest in gold mining manifested during the past few years (1932-1935) bas stimulated prospecting. Many adventurers have taken to the field to search for now gold deposits. A. large percentage of them have had no previous experience in prospecting for lode gold; this paper has been written with the tope that it might assist these newcomers.

Jan 1, 1935

By E. E. Maust

The present work is part of an ongoing Bureau of Mines effort to provide a better understanding of the fundamental phenomena involved in sulfide flotation, the role of oxygen in xanthate adsorption being one essential issue. Galena was chosen as the material around which to develop a conceptual model, partly because of its demonstrated oxygen sensitivity and partly because information on its properties and flotation behavior constitutes the largest part of the fundamental information available on sulfides of commercial importance. The model is formulated primarily in terms of surface electronic energy levels produced by oxygen and xanthate and is further developed using existing experimental evidence and its implications. Four major functions of oxygen are elucidated, and the relationship of these to the formation of lead xanthate, dixanthogen, and a surface compound is discussed. Though yet incomplete, the model provides a useful framework within which the results of diverse experiments can be related to one another in their proper perspective, as shown by a brief discussion and resolution of some apparently discordant results reported in the literature.

Jan 1, 1976

By Frank E. Cash, Roy G. Stott

This circular describes four modern change houses of the Lake Superior iron - ore district , all conceived and constructed since 1937. The oldest change house described herein was constructed and occupied in 1938 , yet it embodies the modern improvement of air - conditioning . The purpose of this report is to describe and illustrate improvements with regard to health and safety features combined in the construction , arrangement , ventilation , heating ,lighting , and other features , with the aid of photographs , sketches , and diagrams . The modern change house is a fire - resistant structure in which intermingling of men in mine clothes and men in street clothes , hazardous dust , heat and humidity , crowding , poor lighting , slippery and muddy floors , and inadequate facilities for clothes and for bathing have been largely eliminated . The miner coming off shift at a modern mine no longer faces the elements when he gets off the cage . He travels through a tunnel to the change house , where he is cooled gradually by room temperatures as he passes from the mineclothes section and shower room to the street - clothes room . He is assured of dry clothes when he is ready for them . No longer is he sent out of the change house into a muddy yard to drive away as best he can . The modern change house has an improved parking lot and graveled or concreted walkways from it to the change house entrances .

Jan 1, 1949

By B. W. Jong

The Bureau of Mines studied reinforcement of sulfur concretes using glass, polyester, and aramid fibers. The objective of this research was to determine the feasibility of fiber-reinforcing the sulfur concrete to enhance the flexural properties. Optimum fiber sulfur concrete compositions were formulated with a cement-to-fiber ratio of 9.0:1 for glass-fiber and polyester-fiber sulfur concretes and 12.1:1 for aramid-fiber sulfur concretes. Test samples were prepared using techniques developed by the Bureau of Mines. Flexural strength values of up to 50 pct of compressive strength values were achieved with fiber additions. With non-fiber-reinforced sulfur concrete, the values ranged up to 20 pct. The impact strength and fracture toughness of sulfur concretes were increased sig-nificantly by reinforcement with glass or with aramid fiber and were adversely affected by use of polyester fiber. Strain tolerance was doubled and failure mode was shifted from catastrophic to noncatastrophic type by adding glass fiber. The glass-fiber and aramid-fiber sulfur concretes are resistant to acid corrosion and have proved durable in freeze-thaw cycles. This laboratory and field evaluation has shown that fiber reinforcement of sulfur concrete is feasible and that it enhances the flexural properties.

Jan 1, 1985

By James J. Dawd

The investigation to evaluate the reserves of coking coal is being made by the Bureau of Mines in three parts: (1) To estimate known measured and indicated recoverable reserves of all coking coal; (2) to upgrade marginal coals through effective preparation; and (3) to study carbonizing properties of coals and coal blends not now widely used for metallurgical coke making. This is the ninth of a series of reports giving results of studies by counties under part (1) of the investigation. (See Appendix.) This report covers Raleigh County, W. Va., which comprises parts of Bald Knob, Eccles, Beckley, Meadow Creek, Mullens, Flattop, and Big Bend quadrangles. (See fig. 1.) A base map for each bed in each quadrangle was made to the scale 1 inch equals 1,200 feet. Maps of mines, location of drill holes, bed and total coal thickness, and outcrop of the bed were plotted on the maps. With all available data plotted, isopach lines were drawn to limit areas of known unmined reserves in beds 0 to 14 inches thick, 14 to 28 inches thick, 28 to 42 inches thick, and over 42 inches thick. These areas of coal reserves also were divided into measured" and "indicated" categories. All areas in each thickness range and in each category, mined-out areas. areas excluded from the estimate but which may contain reserves based only on geologic inference, and areas outside of the outcrop were measured by planimeter on the base maps, Estimates of total reserves 14 inches and more thick and maps for individual beds were prepared from these data.

Jan 1, 1952

By R. V. Higgins

The results of two separate but related studies are given. In the first study, four equations were tested; the object was to determine which would produce a curve that would best fit data points that represent a trend of declining oil production in 90 California fields. Two conventional equations (the Arps and semilog) and two novel equations (extreme-c and double semilog) were tested. The curves were first fitted to the initial 9 years of the 15-year production data and then extrapolated for 6 years to determine how well the extrapolated curve would fit the data points. The generated curves were also extrapolated beyond the last data point to predict rates of future production. The results of the first study showed that no equation was clearly superior to the others in all respects. The semilog equation resulted in the best fit to production data for the first 9 years, but the Arps and extreme-c equations produced a better fit for the extrapolated data for the period of 9 to 15 years. The Arps and extreme-c also gave more realistic production rates when extended to the point where cumulative production equaled reserves. A second study was made to determine if the least-squares technique applied to the Arps equation would result in more accurate extrapolations. The merits of the logarithmic and the nonlogarithmic forms of the Arps hyperbolic equation were also tested. For the logarithmic expression, it was found that one of the constants of the Arps equation reached a value so small or so large that the equation was not applicable to the data of 40 of the 90 California fields. The nonlogarithmic form of the Arps equation was applicable to neither the same 40 fields nor to a few additional ones. When the data and the Arps equation were compatible, the use of the least-squares technique as compared with other methods improved the extrapolation accuracy somewhat.

Jan 1, 1971

By T. L. Iapalucci

To determine the behavior of chlorine in coal combustion, the Bureau of Mines burned 10 chlorine-containing coals, high-, medium-, and low-volatile, in a laboratory-scale pulverized-coal combustor. At carbon-combustion efficiencies of 94 to 98 percent, 1.6 to 7.1 percent of the chlorine or an average of 4 percent of the chlorine in the coal was retained in the ash; the balance, predominantly hydrogen chloride, was evolved in the combustion gas. Sulfur retention in the ash ranged from 2.3 to 10.7 percent or an average of 6.3 percent, Addition of alkali and alkaline earth carbonates to a medium-volatile coal containing 0.27 percent chlorine by preferentially reacting with the chlorine increased the Cl/S atom ratio in the ash, Lithium carbonate addition at 0.43 percent and K2C03 at 1.59 percent increased the C1/S ratio in the ash from 0.2 to 0.6.

Jan 1, 1969

By Rena I. Geroyan

This U.S. Bureau of Mines report presents an evaluation of the coal mining industry's impact on the economy of Pike County, KY. A software package called IMPLAN was used to perform the analysis. The results of this study show that coal mining was the primary income producing industry in Pike County in 1990, accounting for about 46% of the county's Total Industry Output, and 21% of the total employment.. Coal production in that year amounted to 29.6 M mt (32.6 M st). Two alternate economic scenarios were developed to study the potential effects of changing coal market conditions on the county. Scenario A assumes market changes result in a coal production increase of 4.5 M mt/yr (5.0 M st/yr), and scenario B assumes a decrease of 4.5 M mt/yr (5.0 M st/yr). Scenario A would result in a 15.3% rise in the value of Pike County's Total Industry Output, adding a total of 1,663 jobs (+6.1%) in all sectors in the county. Scenario B would have the opposite effect, decreasing the Total Industry Output and employment by identical amounts. Such knowledge would allow local and regional officials to anticipate the economic and social impacts of shifts in coal production, and plan accordingly to mitigate impending changes.

Jan 1, 1994