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By Carlos Almeida, Bruno Matias, Stef Kapuskiak, Eduardo Silva, José Miguel Almeida, Alfredo Martins

Underwater intervention operations have been supported by robotic systems such as remotely operated vehicles (ROV) for a long time. In particular challenging scenarios such as the deep sea, the use of ROV systems for environment awareness is in fact the main tool of choice. With the technical advances in autonomous robotics, there is an increased effort in substitute ROVs whenever possible for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV). These systems don't have tether and thus provide large advantages from the operations and logistic point of view. However the limited options for underwater communications render them impracticable for many tasks were real time environment awareness and direct human control is needed. Emerging applications in underwater mining, both at sea [1] and in inland flooded mines [2] pose additional requirements in terms of operation support needs and environment restrictions. Two main tasks are to be addressed by assisting robots in these underwater mining operations: providing adequate environment awareness for human operators and obtain precise realtime 3D environment modelling (particularly relevant for the mining planning). The use of ROVs with umbilical cable, has in this case large limitations due to the nature of the mining cutting (performed by dedicated systems) that limit manoeuvrability and pose high risk of cutting the cable or damaging the vehicle. In this paper we present EVA (Exploration VAMOS AUV) an innovative hybrid ROV/AUV system developed for operations support in inland underwater mining operations. This robot is always operated without tether, and the can be used in a wireless ROV tele-operation mode using very short range high bandwidth underwater communication systems and in autonomous AUV mode.

Jan 1, 2018

By Peter E. Halbach

The Central Indian Ridge (CIR), the boundary between the African and Indian plates, forms a SSE trending mid-oceanic accretionary system in the equatorial Indian Ocean (Fig. 1), extending to the northerly Carlsberg Ridge spreading center, and terminating at the Rodrigues Triple Junction (RTJ; 25°30'S, 70°06'E) by intersection with the Southwest Indian Ridge (SWIR) and the Southeast Indian Ridge (SEIR). Crustal divergence of the CIR proceeds at intermediate rates; a progressive increase of ocean floor accretion towards the south is documented: the present half spreading rate and ridge trend change from 1.80 cm/a and N142° at the equator to 2.73 cm/a and N152° north of the triple point. The topography of the central rift zone is rather smooth compared to slow spreading analogues such as the SWIR, but slightly more rugged than the SEIR. The rift valley is 500-800 m deep, 10-15 km wide and usually well defined. The inner floor, 2-4 km in width, is relatively flat along the axis and more variable in cross section, and lies at 2700-3200 m depth. Off set fracture zones striking generally N60° . in southern portions of the CIR and laterally displacing median valleys by as much as 8 km are often bent, uplifting crustal sequences up to several hundred meters. The length of individual spreading segments varies between a few and several tens of kilometers. The vertical displacement on normal faults are larger while lineaments are shorter than those of the faster spreading SEIR. The direction of lineaments measured on the southwestern and northeastern flanks of the southern CIR are N154° and

Jan 1, 1994

By T. Barryere, R. B. Pedersen, E. Reeves, A. Stensland, I. Thorseth, T. Baumberger

Venting on ultraslow spreading ridges is far more abundant then previously predicted, and the discrepancy between observed and predicted vent field density may imply that non-magmatic heat sources are common along these ridges (Baker and German, 2004; Escartin et al., 2008; Rona et al., 2010; German et al., 2016). In this study we have estimated the flux from two hydrothermal vent sites situated on the slow to ultraslow spreading Mohns Ridge at the Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge system (AMOR). The flux estimates have been made using the primordial isotope 3He in the non-buoyant plume above the Loki’s Castle vent field at the northern termination of the Mohns Ridge, and from the Jan Mayen vent fields area situated close to the southern termination of the ridge. Primordial 3He enters the oceans through degassing and mixing with hydrothermal fluids eventually to be discharged at the ocean floor primarily at hydrothermal vent sites and submarine volcanic eruptions (e.g. Clarke et al., 1969; Lupton and Craig, 1981; Lupton, 1998). Once introduced into the water column the concentration will only decrease by dilution due to its conservative behavior in the water column. Water column samples were collected using a CTD (conductivity, temperature, depth) probe (911plus Seabird) with a Niskin water bottle rosette. The water column above the Jan Mayen vent fields (JMVF) was sampled in the years 2006, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (82 samples) and the water column above the Loki’s Castle vent field was sampled in the years 2007, 2008 and 2009 (116 samples).

Jan 1, 2018

By RB. Pedersen, T. Barryere, E. Reeves, A. Stensland, I. Thorseth, T. Baumberger

Venting on ultraslow spreading ridges is far more abundant then previously predicted, and the discrepancy between observed and predicted vent field density may imply that non-magmatic heat sources are common along these ridges (Baker and German, 2004; Escartin et al., 2008; Rona et al., 2010; German et al., 2016). In this study we have estimated the flux from two hydrothermal vent sites situated on the slow to ultraslow spreading Mohns Ridge at the Arctic Mid-Ocean Ridge system (AMOR). The flux estimates have been made using the primordial isotope 3He in the non-buoyant plume above the Loki’s Castle vent field at the northern termination of the Mohns Ridge, and from the Jan Mayen vent fields area situated close to the southern termination of the ridge. Primordial 3He enters the oceans through degassing and mixing with hydrothermal fluids eventually to be discharged at the ocean floor primarily at hydrothermal vent sites and submarine volcanic eruptions (e.g. Clarke et al., 1969; Lupton and Craig, 1981; Lupton, 1998). Once introduced into the water column the concentration will only decrease by dilution due to its conservative behavior in the water column. Water column samples were collected using a CTD (conductivity, temperature, depth) probe (911plus Seabird) with a Niskin water bottle rosette. The water column above the Jan Mayen vent fields (JMVF) was sampled in the years 2006, 2011, 2012 and 2013 (82 samples) and the water column above the Loki’s Castle vent field was sampled in the years 2007, 2008 and 2009 (116 samples).

Jan 1, 2018

By Lee Sung-rock

KIGAM (Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) has been doing various kinds of research works in marine minerals and energy resources exploration and utilization since early 1990s in Korea. In the presentation, the authors will introduce the recent research and development activities mainly focusing on the rare earth metals of the Pacific deep seabed Mn-nodules and gas hydrates which occur from Korean deep waters. KIGAM has been participating in the polymetallic manganese nodule exploration, mining and metal-extraction project, which is modulated by KIOST (Korea Institute of Ocean Sciences and Technology, formerly KORDI). Now KIGAM puts more focus on extracting precious and rare earth metals from the Mn-nodule as well as underlying sediments. The rare earth elements (REE) from seabed mineral deposits also draw attention to those countries including Korea which are lack in natural resources. KIGAM is doing several kinds of leaching experiments using various kinds of reagents under the different experimental parameters. Extraction of rare earth metals from deep sea nodule using H2SO4 and HCl solution showed good leaching effect. As the gas hydrates are to be evaluated as a new future energy resource globally, Korean government has initiated national R/D program covering fundamental exploration survey for resources assessment in Korean deep waters and production technology development. KIGAM plays a key role in seismic exploration, resources assessment, experimental

Sep 14, 2011

By William D. Siapno

Approximately a century lapsed between the time nodules were discovered and the beginning of commercial exploration in the early 1960's. A period of rapid development of exploration and mining technology ensued over most of the next two decades. In recent years advancement has been sharply curtailed. This paper discusses the constraints inhibiting nodule mining and some developments that could aid in overcoming certain difficulties. Specifically, the greatest single constraint is economic. With few exceptions mineral markets are badly depressed. Present projections for development of nodules are for the late 1990's or beyond. However, the U.S. awarded exploration licenses in mid-1984 and more recently boundaries of license areas have been released. These conditions promote cooperation among organizations engaged in deep ocean mining. Survey data, and where appropriate some data products, have been exchanged between various consortia. The present hiatus in at-sea activities provides an excellent opportunity to investigate the best means to proceed. This period of quiescence offers a rare moment to distill the meaningful values of an era of hectic activity to permit more efficient development in the future.

Jan 1, 1985

By Will Roberts, M. E. Williamson

After verification of methodology and testing of prototype systems during 2005/06, Nautilus Minerals expanded their Papua New Guinea (PNG) operations to a full commercial exploration program in 2007. Included was the deployment of sensors and survey systems to locate, characterize and verify massive sulfide deposits with potential as mine sites within the tenements held by Nautilus in PNG. This presentation discusses some of the gear developed and operated during the 2007 PNG investigation.

By Alan Foley

The Portable Remote Operated Drill was developed in Sydney, Australia in the 1990’s. The device is a platform for many in-situ seabed sampling and coring tasks. The range of tools developed for use in PROD’s magazine now includes gas detectors, vane testers, penetrometers and corers. This paper presents aspects of the soils testing undertaken in deepwater since 2005, focusing on testing of methane hydrates and reefal accumulations. The varied selection of tools carried in PROD’s magazines allow the unit to perform several functions from the seafloor in one deployment.

Sep 24, 2006

By Sally Philpot, Siân E. Boyd, Hubert L. Rees, Emma Bee, Carla Houghton, Ceri James, Silvana N. R. Birchenough, S. Limpenny David, A. Coggan1 Roger, Koen Vanstaen

Every year approximately 22 million tonnes of marine sand and gravel are dredged form British waters. The eastern English Channel (EEC) contains substantial reserves, a proportion of which have been identified by the aggregates industry for potential future exploitation. The main aim of this study is to produce broadscale marine habitat maps of the EEC area. The UK aggregates industry has formed a consortium of representatives (the eastern English Channel Association), and have sponsored an initial baseline survey and follow-up sampling programmes as part of a Regional Environmental Assessment (REA) covering a patchwork of aggregate prospecting areas. To complement this effort, a large-scale geophysical survey was conducted in 2005 to place the REA in a wider spatial context and, thereby, to help assess the environmental significance of any future impacts arising from commercial aggregate extraction over the broader region of the EEC.

Sep 24, 2006

By Ian B. Corbett

De Beers Marine Pty Ltd. (South Africa) (DEBMARINE), a wholly owned subsidiary of De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. specializes in the provision of contracting and consulting services for offshore diamond exploration, Mineral Resource Management and mining. Established in 1983, the company is strongly focused on driving and sustaining growth of the offshore diamond mining industry into the 21st century. DEBMARINE provides full Mineral Resource Management and produce almost half a million carats annually for the Namibian Diamond Corporation (Pty) Ltd. from their offshore mining licence. The company is also extensively involved in feasibility studies to establish new mining ventures and in the exploration of several offshore Prospecting Licence Areas for other clients. As a pioneer in this field, DEBMARINE remains highly focused on technological development. A specialized section, the Technical Development Business Unit, has been established. Through relationships with various technology leaders, this unit develops new sub-sea mining technology and delivers productivity innovations aimed at realizing maximized carat extraction. This talk provides a broad perspective on the development of the Namibian offshore deposits and examines the critical role played by high-resolution orebody characterization and high-confidence Mineral Resource development at De Beers Marine.

Jan 1, 1998

By Sang Bum Chi

In order to better predict and manage benthic disturbance by deep seabed manganese nodules mining, we needed to conduct a benthic disturbance experiment at the selected area, which has a similar environmental condition as the preservation reference area. Therefore, we have performed environmental baseline studies from 2003--not only to select the benthic environmental impact testing site but, also to detect any environmental changes before and after mining activity. Since then, a large dataset of various parameters ranging from physical (e.g. temperature, salinity, current, weather), chemical (e.g. dissolved oxygen, nutrients, dissolved and particulate organic carbon), biological (e.g. bacteria, plankton, benthos), geological (e.g. Mn-nodule abundance, sediment shear strength) and others (e.g. bathymetric profile and slope, mass flux) have been accumulated. Using this dataset, descriptive statistics and cross-correlations were performed to select the benthic environmental impact testing site. Outcome of this analysis suggests that the potential benthic impact testing site would be a rectangular-shape area (10 km × 10 km) and located at 10°27'~10°33'N, 131°53'~131°58'W, which is latitudinally the same as the preservation reference area.

Jan 1, 2011

By Winston Rocher Anda

Traditionally, mining activities have been developed in firm land, but technological advances and human needs have opened in the last year?s new opportunities in the maritime field. This has happened not only in the oil or hydrocarbons industries, but also in relation to the exploration or exploitation of other minerals, metallic and non-metallic. This has forced several countries to complement or create legal rules that make possible its own development and the International Law, through the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, to regulate this activity in the space of its own, the calling area. Chile, as country with a long experience in mining and great advances in large deposits exploitation, possesses a special juridical frame that regulates this economic activity according if it is the geographical or territorial area in which is realizes, and it has been complemented lately with the international normative.

Jan 1, 2011

By S. Naidu, J. Kelley, Roger Amato

The Alaskan Continental Shelf covers 76 % of the total shelf area of the United States. There are a lot of potential gravel deposits in the Alaskan offshore region. The gravel resources are currently not feasible for mining for the following reasons (U.S Congress, 1987): 1. Much of the glacial gravel is poorly sorted. 2. Gravel deposits are overlain by sandy and muddy layers. With the sea level expected to rise 70 cm in the next 100 years (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC, 2001; Day, 2004), erosion of coastlines will be a major problem not only in Alaska but worldwide. Hence beach nourishment projects designed to minimize erosion will require large volumes of sand and gravel. Offshore areas will become a logical source for the fill material because of their proximity and ready availability. It is likely that future supply of coarse aggregate in Alaska may involve exploitation of marine deposits. The Chukchi Sea is a potentially favorable region for this type of mining because of extensive deposits of paleo beach and other relict gravel found in the near shore region (Stauffer, 1987). However a systematic analysis of potential gravel resource has not yet been conducted and it is the purpose of this research to estimate the size, extent and variability of gravel material that may be available in the continental shelf, offshore Kivalina.

By Janine Lahr, Peter E. Halbach

The Manus Spreading Ridge is located within the EEZ of Papua New Guinea and lies in the Manus Basin ENE of the PNG Island and N of the Island New Britain. The divergent backarc spreading system is caused by the subduction of the Solomon plate in the South under the Bismarck plate in the North along the lineament of the New Britain trench. The rate of divergence is relatively high compared to other back arc spreading systems and amounts up to 12 cm/year [3]. Since submarine volcanism and associated hydrothermal circulation as important parts of the oceanic heat transfer system are also dependent on the rate of spreading, hydrothermal fluid venting and respective deposition of polymetallic sulfides can be expected there. In late 1985 first indications for hydrothermal activity were observed on a swell within the central rift valley of the Manus Spreading Centre during a photographic survey of the seafloor by an expedition of the Hawaii Institute of Geophysics with the American RV Moana Wave [1]. Detailed geological investigations including successful sampling were first carried out in June 1990 within the scope of the OLGA II research project (conducted by Prof. Tufar, Marburg) using the German RV Sonne equipped with a deep-sea television sledge and Tvcontrolled grab systems. Simultaneously a research cruise with the Russian RV Akademic Mstivlav Keldysh took place using the manned submersible Mir; the findings of the OLGA II cruise were immediately used for planning and organization of the Mir dives [3]. The massive sulphide samples which we used for our geochemical and mineralogical studies originate from the hydrothermal fields 1 and 2 and are from grab stations of the OLGA II expedition [4].

Sep 24, 2006

By Ivo Dreiseitl

The interaction between nodule harvester and eupelagic sediment on the seabed is definitely one of the key aspects of mining technology for polymetallic nodules which is to be studied in details. Physical properties of sediments play major role for evaluation of protection and preservation of marine environment while strength properties of sediments will come in useful for future mining operations. Cone penetration test (CPT) used for testing in situ is one of methods for investigation strength properties of sediments. The testing apparatus for CPT consists of an instrumented cone having a tip facing down and it is mounted on special underwater equipment (rus. UGI-1). UGI-1 can determine subsurface strength down to the depth interval 0 ? 1.10 m. Special IOM geotechnical cruise was accomplished in 1989 on board R/V Academic A. Karpinski within the extra test area of about 1000 km2. Thanks to UGI-1 the IOM database recorded unique strength sediment data (cone penetration resistance) from 279 seabed points of sounding at profiles 125.6 km long. Up to 35 strength data from depth interval 0-1.1m (every 3cm) were obtained from any particular testing point. As a result 279 strength charts could be plotted (two examples in Figure 1). The cone penetration resistance values can be correlated to shear strength parameters.

Jan 1, 2011

By Graham Singleton

Around 235 million tonnes of marine aggregates have been dredged in the last decade from the UK continental shelf alone. The current distribution of marine aggregate production licence areas in North West Europe reflects the relationship between a variety of factors such as the natural distribution of deposits of sand and gravel, the demand for aggregates, the technical capabilities of the dredging fleet and environmental considerations. Whilst the sand and gravel deposits targeted by the marine aggregate industry are generally relict and therefore geographically fixed, the remaining factors have evolved over time and will continue to do so in future. Applications for new licences must not only reflect the current situation, but anticipate future trends. The main markets for marine aggregates are the construction industry, centred around the larger centres of population and coastal protection projects along the coastline of Europe. The aggregate industry as a whole does not create demand but simply meets it. Many factors influence the overall demand for aggregates and guidance exists for those in authority and industry who need to plan for the supply of aggregates. Adequate supplies should be maintained at the best balance of social, environmental and economic cost, whilst ensuring that extraction and development are consistent with the principles of sustainable development.

Jan 1, 2004

By Yannick C. Beaudoin

Southern Explorer Ridge (SER) is an anomalously shallow, intermediate-rate spreading ridge located 200 kilometers off the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada. It ranges in depth between 2600 m (deepest basins) and 1760 m (bathymetric minimum). At least 60 sulfide deposits are known to be associated with hydrothermal vent fields along the ridge. For the first time geological data, including deposit locations, collected from 15 marine expeditions to SER since 1983 have been assembled in a GIS format. GIS processing techniques were employed to plot the distribution of base metal concentrations for recovered sulfide samples. The highest base metal concentrations are found in the vicinity of the Magic Mountain site (main active vent field), and also proximal to a side scan sonar anomaly referred to as AGOR 171. Individual samples near these locations have yielded values as high as 29.3 wt\% Cu, 34.3 wt\% zinc, 0.97 wt\% Pb, 2.0 ppm gold, and 664 ppm silver. Sample paucity is the key limiting factor that prevents adequate assessment of the areas economic potential.

Jan 1, 2001

A C-CORE study on behalf of the government of Newfoundland identified the inner continental shelf off northeast Newfoundland as having a relatively higher potential for hosting placer gold than other parts of the inner shelf. Under the auspices of the Canada-Newfoundland Cooperation Agreement on Mineral Development, the Geological Survey of Canada conducted a three-year project to map the distribution of surficial sediments and the abundance of placer minerals (particularly gold) from White Bay to Cape Freels. Much of the study area is a fjord coast, with steep rocky slopes and scattered gravel beaches. The extreme east, from Hamilton Sound to Cape Freels, has a wide, shallow inner shelf, sandy beaches, and extensive coastal dunes. Relative sea level was high in the late glacial period. It has fallen continuously in the west, but in the east it dropped to -19 m, before rising to within several metres of the present level by 3 ka. In terms of surficial sediments and processes, five zones are identified: (1) Deep offshore deep basins that contain thick postglacial mud overlying glacialmarine gravelly sandy mud. This zone is below a depth of 370 m in White Bay, 300 m in the Notre Dame Basin. 2) Basin transition zone in which the sea bed has been eroded by currents, so that glacialmarine sediments are exposed in places. Winnowing has formed an uppermost layer of muddy gravel. There is a slight potential for enhanced levels of fine particulate gold, but the gold would not be exploitable. (3) Iceberg impacted zone Above 200 m the keels of icebergs impact the sea bed, causing furrowing and pitting. Furrows predominate in deeper areas, and pits are concentrated at the inner boundary of this zone. Iceberg turbates have developed in shallow waters (60-100 m). Combined with winnowing, iceberg turbation could enhance the potential for concentration of fine particulate gold, but not into economic quantities. 4) Wave dominated zone Above approximately 60 m the sea-bed sediments are highly mobile due to waves, currents, and iceberg impact. Sand is either rippled or organised into sand waves. Gravel is either poorly sorted, and organised into

Jan 1, 1995

By Johnson R. Cann

Ocean floor sulfide deposits are now known from many parts of the world mid-ocean ridge system and from some seamounts. Clearly they can be expected to occur commonly on the ocean floor. However, only two or three of the known deposits appear to approach the million-ton size, and in none of the deposits has the grade been well-defined. Can knowledge of the processes that happen within the hydrothermal plumbing below deposits help define the conditions under which large, high-grade deposits form? Here I review present knowledge of ocean-floor hydrothermal processes to attempt a first answer to this question. There are three sources of information about these processes. The solutions emerging from active systems must be compatible with patterns of alteration that underlie the volcanogenic sulfide deposits of ophiolite complexes, which are slices of ocean crust thrust onto land. Both of these types of evidence can be linked by computer modelling of the exchange of heat and metals between rocks and flowing water.

Jan 1, 1988

By Kaihui Yang

Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits are generally considered to have been formed by hydrothermal fluids that leach ore metals out of footwall rocks. However, the necessity for a metal-rich magmatic component in the ore-forming fluid of "giant" ore deposits has been debated over the decades. The solution to this issue is important not only for metallogenic models but also for the mineral exploration. In the hydrothermal leaching model, massive sulfides at mid-ocean ridges are deposited from hydrothermal fluids containing 80 ppm Fe, 6 ppm Zn, 2 ppm Cu, 350oC, and 0.7 g/cm3 density (average data for 21oN East Pacific Rise). A simple calculation demonstrates that such a dilute fluid is unlikely to have been responsible for the formation of the largest ancient massive sulfide ores of greater than 100x106 tonnes, such as Kidd Creek, Brunswick No. 12, Neves Corvo, and Rio Tinto. For such a deposit consisting primarily of pyrite, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite (other minerals, including gangue, might account for an additional 10-20%) and even assuming 100% precipitation and retention of the sulfides, more than 790 km3 of vent fluid would be required. For typical water-rock reaction ratios of about 2, this fluid would have to have reacted with about 395 km3 of rock to acquire its metals by conventional leaching processes. This estimate, however, conflicts with the observation that even a giant massive sulfide ore body is usually underlain only by a few cube kilometers of obviously altered rocks. Moreover, this model is not consistent with the observation of hanging wall alteration in many large massive sulfide deposits. The close spatial association between massive sulfides and volcanic rocks, in both ancient and modern sea floors, suggests that direct magmatic contribution should be taken into account in the genetic model. Magmatic fluids, capable of carrying abundant ore metals and volatiles and escaping from magma by depressurization, are well known from modern active volcanoes on land. High concentrations of metals occur in CO2-rich magmatic fluid trapped in felsic volcanic rocks nearby large presently-forming VMS deposits in the eastern Manus Basin (Pacmanus, Suzette) and also in the footwall rocks of Ordovician giant Brunswick #12 deposit in the Bathurst district, New Brunswick. Only 1% of such metal-rich magmatic fluid mixed with heated sea water, that has leached its metals from rocks, would contribute 85% of the total metals to form an orebody. Such magmatic fluids are most likely to be formed from volatile-rich felsic magmas that are prevalent in back arcs, and, if added to the normal circulation system, the fluids could be responsible for the formation of "giant" ore deposits. If this is true, then the study of magmatic fluids in the seafloor volcanic rocks may provide criteria for the exploration of large ore deposits.

Jan 1, 2011