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Jan 1, 1967

By T. G. Sieber, T. D. Tiemann

The extraction of quartz from siliceous iron ores by dissolution in sodium hydroxide solution has been described in detail in AIME Transactions. l923 data reported covered the temperature range from 230-416°F, where a continuous increase in the amount of silica extracted with increase in temperature was found. It is the purpose of this paper to describe some unexpected results of more recent work exploring principally the range of 500600°F where higher rates and greater amounts of silica extraction were antici-p ted. In brief, the experimental procedure consists in digesting the ore under pressure in solutions of sodium hydroxide, filtering the suspension and weighing and analyzing the dried residue for iron content. The amount of extraction is calculated from the weight loss or from the iron analysis of the residue and that of the original ore.

Jan 1, 1969

By Nathan C. Rockwood

THE title of this paper, I understand, was suggested by professional mining engineers as an opportunity for someone to pose problems rather than to offer solutions for them, but the paper will merely attempt to pose some of the production problems of the mineral aggregates industry in such manner as to create professional interest in their solution by the mining engineer, geologist, geochemist and the metallurgical engineer versed in mineral-dressing technique. DEFINITION OF MINERAL AGGREGATES "Mineral aggregates" may be defined as fragments of any rock or mineral used to supply bulk or volume or substance for a given purpose. For example, mineral aggregates are used in portland-cement concrete to provide bulk with the expenditure of the least feasible amount of cement binder. Mineral aggregates are used without portland cement or bituminous binder in highway and railway roadbeds to provide substance, to carry loads. Mineral aggregates are used in filters for water and sewage, to provide substance for the liquid to trickle through. These are only a few typical uses of mineral aggregates. For all these uses, strength, toughness, resistance to abrasion, and durability are usually prime requisites; so, while theoretically mineral aggregates may be of any mineral composition, what really is desired is a mineral composition as nearly inert under the conditions of use as anything of earthly origin can be. EXPLORATION AND POSSIBILITIES OF DEVELOPMENT The distribution of deposits of mineral aggregate is universal, since almost any part of the earth's crust can be used; even the top soil is sometimes used in stabilized surfacing for highways or airport runways. Nevertheless there is ample opportunity for exercise of the talents of the mining engineer and the geologist in finding the particular deposit that will be most economical to develop, keeping in mind such considerations as: (1) quality and mineralogical characteristics of the material; (2) size and permanency of the market; (3) final cost of opening and development of the deposit; (4) selection of location of plant; (5) methods and costs of distribution of the product in comparison with both present and possible future competition; (6) selection of the proper type of operating equipment; (7) estimation of probable waste products and their disposal. These are typical but there are other considerations also. Because profit margins are far smaller than in any comparable mining operation, it is all the more logical to assume that a higher degree of expert knowledge is desirable to make a success of a mineral-aggregates business. The industry has much engineering talent in its operating branch, but it lacks, to a considerable

Jan 1, 1943

By Eric R. Jette, Earl S. Greiner

Although the mechanical and chemical characteristics of certain iron-nickel-silicon alloys have been investigated,1 the available literature shows no results of a systematic investigation of the constitution of this system. 'This paper describes the results of an X-ray investigation of the constitution of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600°C. Data 011 the constitution of the included binary systems obtained in other investigations have been correlated with the structure of the ternary alloys. Jette and Foote2 have presented a tentative constitutional diagram of the iron-nickel system. following X-ray studies on quenched specimens. This diagram shows that the alloys at 600°C. containing from zero to approximately 4 atomic per cent nickel consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase, the alloys containing 4 to 24 atomic per cent nickel consist of body-centered cubic (alpha) and face-centered cubic (gamma) phases, and the alloys containing from 24 to Ioo atomic per cent nickel consist of a face-centered cubic (gamma) phase. These investigators recognized that it was not possible to retain the gamma phase in equilibrium by quenching alloys containing less than approximately 25 atomic per cent nickel and that high-temperature X-ray methods were desirable to determine the gamma-phase solubility limit. In a later investigation of the iron-nickel alloys, Owen and Sulley3 determined the alpha-phase solid solubility limit to be 3.5 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. High-temperature X-ray methods showed the solid solubility limit of the gamma phase to be 14 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. Since the high-temperature X-ray method should reveal equilibrium conditions in these alloys better than the quench method of other investigators, the results of Owen and Sulley pertaining to the gamma-phase boundary are to be preferred. As the result of an X-ray investigation of quenched iron-silicon alloys, Greiner and Jette4 have shown these materials to consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase containing from o to 26.4 atomic per cent silicon at 600°C. The alloys containing from 26.4 to approximately 50 atomic per cent silicon consist of two phases at 600°C.; namely, alpha and eta. The eta phase corresponds to the stoichiometrical formula FeSi (33.4 wt per cent Si)." The literature pertaining to the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys has been reviewed by Ackerman,' who found disagreements in the results of various investigators on several parts of the system. Subsequent data on the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys were reported by oSawa and okamoto.6

Jan 1, 1943

By Earl S. Greiner, Eric R. Jette

Although the mechanical and chemical characteristics of certain iron-nickel-silicon alloys have been investigated,1 the available literature shows no results of a systematic investigation of the constitution of this system. 'This paper describes the results of an X-ray investigation of the constitution of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600°C. Data 011 the constitution of the included binary systems obtained in other investigations have been correlated with the structure of the ternary alloys. Jette and Foote2 have presented a tentative constitutional diagram of the iron-nickel system. following X-ray studies on quenched specimens. This diagram shows that the alloys at 600°C. containing from zero to approximately 4 atomic per cent nickel consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase, the alloys containing 4 to 24 atomic per cent nickel consist of body-centered cubic (alpha) and face-centered cubic (gamma) phases, and the alloys containing from 24 to Ioo atomic per cent nickel consist of a face-centered cubic (gamma) phase. These investigators recognized that it was not possible to retain the gamma phase in equilibrium by quenching alloys containing less than approximately 25 atomic per cent nickel and that high-temperature X-ray methods were desirable to determine the gamma-phase solubility limit. In a later investigation of the iron-nickel alloys, Owen and Sulley3 determined the alpha-phase solid solubility limit to be 3.5 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. High-temperature X-ray methods showed the solid solubility limit of the gamma phase to be 14 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. Since the high-temperature X-ray method should reveal equilibrium conditions in these alloys better than the quench method of other investigators, the results of Owen and Sulley pertaining to the gamma-phase boundary are to be preferred. As the result of an X-ray investigation of quenched iron-silicon alloys, Greiner and Jette4 have shown these materials to consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase containing from o to 26.4 atomic per cent silicon at 600°C. The alloys containing from 26.4 to approximately 50 atomic per cent silicon consist of two phases at 600°C.; namely, alpha and eta. The eta phase corresponds to the stoichiometrical formula FeSi (33.4 wt per cent Si)." The literature pertaining to the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys has been reviewed by Ackerman,' who found disagreements in the results of various investigators on several parts of the system. Subsequent data on the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys were reported by oSawa and okamoto.6

Jan 1, 1943

By Charles T. Baroch, Charles J. Baroch

In 20 years of commercial development, nuclear reactors have demonstrated that they are a safe, dependable, and economical source of power. Operating experience with commercial power reactors has firmly established nuclear power as a practicable source of energy. For both boiling-water (BWR) and pressurized-water (PWR) reactors, performances to date have generally met design predictions. Furthermore, it has become possible to analyze and understand the nuclear, chemical, and physical behavior of this class of reactors. The United Kingdom has had similar success with gas-cooled reactors. The Experimental Boiling Water Reactor (EBWR), the first United States experimental power reactor, began operation in 1956. It proved to be capable of supplying 4500 kw (kilowatts) of power. This reactor was followed in 1957 by the Pressurized Water Reactor at Shippingport, Pa. It was the nation's first full-scale central-station nuclear power plant and the first in the world designed exclusively for the production of civilian electric power. The Shippingport reactor was originally designed to produce 60 megawatts (MW) of electricity, and it was increased to 100 MW in 1964. In 12 years of operation, this reactor generated over 4.5-million MW-hr of electricity in spite of many shutdowns for experimental alterations. By 1969, a total of 15 central-station nuclear power reactors were operable in the United States with an aggregate electrical capacity of over 4200 MW. Early in 1964, Jersey Central Power & Light Co. announced plans for constructing a 515-MW nuclear plant at Oyster Creek, N.J., to be built without government financial assistance. The company stated that a nuclear plant had been selected competitively with fossil fuel. Their economic analysis stated that the plant would generate electricity at less than 4 mills per kw-hr, competitive with coal at 200 per million Btu (British thermal units). Coal cost in 1964 for that region averaged 26.00 per million Btu. The Jersey Central report created wide interest in public-utility circles; nevertheless, no other nuclear plants were announced in 1964. However, in 1965, six nuclear plants were announced by utilities, followed by 26 in 1966, 29 in 1967, and 10 in 1968. By Sept. 30, 1969, 97 reactors were operable, being built, or planned. The cost of these, all committed by electric utilities, was estimated at about $12 billion. When constructed, they will have an electrical capacity of 72,000 MW. The unprecedented surge in power reactors that started in 1965 tapered in 1968, and only seven reactors were announced in

Jan 1, 1976

By E. P. Klier, S. M. Grymko

The transformations in eutectoidal systems have been extensively studied as they occur in steels.&apos; As a consequence of these studies the martensite, bainite and pearlite reactions found for most steels are widely recognized. Further, because of the work of Smith and Lindlief2 and of Greninger and Troiano3 these reactions, except for the bainite reaction, are considered as typical for all eutectoidal systems. The primary alloy studied by Smith and Lindlief2 was a CuAl alloy of near eutectoid composition as was the alloy more recently studied by Mack.4 The transformations in these alloys were, for the most part, studied metallo-graphically, while an X ray analysis of structures was essentially wanting. It has appeared desirable, therefore, to investigate selected CuAl alloys at and slightly away from eutectoid composition. For this purpose three alloys were prepared containing 10.5,11.9 and 13.5 pct A1 respectively. The results of a metallographic and X ray analysis of structures obtained for isothermal transformation of the ß-phase are reported here for the 11.9 and 13.5 pct A1 alloys. Introduction The phase equilibria in the CuAl alloys of immediate concern are indicated in the equilibrium diagram section presented in Fig 1.5 The equilibrium and transition structures which have been reported in this system are as follows: a = copper rich terminal phase (f.c.c.) ß = high temperature eutectoidal phase (b.c.c.) r2 = aluminum-rich intermediate phase (r-brass structure) a&apos; = modified a-phase postulated by Bollenrath and Bungnrdt.26 ß1 = ordered ß (b.c.c.) ß&apos; = martensite structure: A1 < 13 pct (near h.c.p.) ß" = ß&apos; of Smith and Lindlief2 7&apos; = martensite structure: A1 > 13.5 pct (h.c.p.); ß2 of Bollenrath and Bungardt.26 The eutectoid transformation can be suppressed at sufficiently high cooling velocities. The ß-phase is then retained to about 500°C where ordering sets in. The ordering interval is not satisfactorily known but indirectly appears to be non-suppressible. Subsequent to the ordering reaction and consequently at lower temperatures, the ordered ß1 decomposes to a marten-sitic structure. The kinetics of these reactions and in particular those of the martensite reaction have an important bearing on the results obtained in this investigation. Since some confusion exists concerning certain reported aspects of these reactions, they will be considered in some detail. THE MARTENSITE REACTION The martensitic structure is formed on cooling through a critical range6

Jan 1, 1950

By K. L. Sutherland, J. Rogers

The relationships between collector and mineral, activator and mineral, and activator, collector and mineral will be considered herein. We propose to criticize current theories of flotation but we will not repeat the many pertinent arguments presented by Wark and Cox28 in 1937 in which the "chemical" or more strictly the "solubility" theory proposed by Taggart and co-workers22 is shown to be untenable. Recently Taggart, Arbiter and Kellogg24 have studied the long-chain aliphatic amines as collectors and have attempted to resuscitate the solubility theory for these particular collectors. Dean and Ambrose3 have felt that "we stumble over words" when we distinguish different mechanisms of adsorption. Our view is that nothing is more stultifying to the development of a science than attempts to force widely different phenomena into one classification. This oversimplification leads immediately to difficulties in the interpretation of results. Experimental Procedure The response of minerals to activator and collector was determined by "captive-bubble" tests. The methods of preparation of specimens26 and of testingin have been previously described. Results from captive-bubble tests were confirmed by flotation tests in glass-stoppered cylinders.26 The full lines shown in the figures relating solution composition to contact (flotation) distinguish solutions in which contact (flotation) is possible from those in which it is not. The curve is derived by successive approximation and the accuracy is ±o.2 pH units and ±5 mg. per liter of collector or depressant. Solution compositions for which it was shown experimentally that contact or flotation is possible are marked by a circle, those for which it is not possible by a cross and those for which it is doubtful by a cross within a circle. It is assumed that at all other solution compositions within (without) the curve, contact or flotation is possible (not possible). After testing in the collector solution, the mineral was removed, washed, and tested by the captive-bubble method in water, or floated in a cylinder with frother only. In this way the composition of solutions in which a mineral was conditioned but in which properties of the collector solution prevented contact or flotation can be defined. The composition of solutions in which conditioning was possible lie between the full and broken curve, the experimental results being indicated on the figures by a square. The curves show the limits of composition of solution in which flotation in a cell would be possible. Many factors other than those considered in these tests determine recovery or grade of a given mineral in practice.

Jan 1, 1947

By J. Rogers, K. L. Sutherland

The relationships between collector and mineral, activator and mineral, and activator, collector and mineral will be considered herein. We propose to criticize current theories of flotation but we will not repeat the many pertinent arguments presented by Wark and Cox28 in 1937 in which the "chemical" or more strictly the "solubility" theory proposed by Taggart and co-workers22 is shown to be untenable. Recently Taggart, Arbiter and Kellogg24 have studied the long-chain aliphatic amines as collectors and have attempted to resuscitate the solubility theory for these particular collectors. Dean and Ambrose3 have felt that "we stumble over words" when we distinguish different mechanisms of adsorption. Our view is that nothing is more stultifying to the development of a science than attempts to force widely different phenomena into one classification. This oversimplification leads immediately to difficulties in the interpretation of results. Experimental Procedure The response of minerals to activator and collector was determined by "captive-bubble" tests. The methods of preparation of specimens26 and of testingin have been previously described. Results from captive-bubble tests were confirmed by flotation tests in glass-stoppered cylinders.26 The full lines shown in the figures relating solution composition to contact (flotation) distinguish solutions in which contact (flotation) is possible from those in which it is not. The curve is derived by successive approximation and the accuracy is ±o.2 pH units and ±5 mg. per liter of collector or depressant. Solution compositions for which it was shown experimentally that contact or flotation is possible are marked by a circle, those for which it is not possible by a cross and those for which it is doubtful by a cross within a circle. It is assumed that at all other solution compositions within (without) the curve, contact or flotation is possible (not possible). After testing in the collector solution, the mineral was removed, washed, and tested by the captive-bubble method in water, or floated in a cylinder with frother only. In this way the composition of solutions in which a mineral was conditioned but in which properties of the collector solution prevented contact or flotation can be defined. The composition of solutions in which conditioning was possible lie between the full and broken curve, the experimental results being indicated on the figures by a square. The curves show the limits of composition of solution in which flotation in a cell would be possible. Many factors other than those considered in these tests determine recovery or grade of a given mineral in practice.

Jan 1, 1947

By Earl S. Greiner, Eric R. Jette

ALTHOUGH the mechanical and chemical characteristics of certain iron-nickel-silicon alloys have been investigated,1 the available literature shows no results of a systematic investigation of the constitution of this system. This paper describes the results of an X-ray investigation of the constitution of the iron-rich iron-nickel-silicon alloys at 600°C. Data on the constitution of the included binary systems obtained in other investigations have been correlated with the structure of the ternary alloys. Jette and Foote2 have presented a tentative constitutional diagram of the iron-nickel system following X-ray studies on quenched specimens. This diagram shows that the alloys at 600°C. containing from zero to approximately 4 atomic per cent nickel consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase, the alloys containing 4 to 24 atomic per cent nickel consist of body-centered cubic (alpha) and face- centered cubic (gamma) phases, and the alloys containing from 24 to 100 atomic per cent nickel consist of a face-centered cubic (gamma) phase. These investigators recognized that it was not possible to retain the gamma phase in equilibrium by quenching alloys containing less than approximately 25 atomic per cent nickel and that high-temperature X-ray methods were desirable to determine the gamma-phase solubility limit. In a later investigation of the iron-nickel alloys, Owen and Sulley3 determined the alpha-phase solid solubility limit to be 3.5 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. High-temperature X-ray methods showed the solid solubility limit of the gamma phase to be 14 atomic per cent nickel at 600°C. Since the high-temperature X-ray method should reveal equilibrium conditions in these alloys better than the quench method of other investigators, the results of Owen and Sulley pertaining to the gamma-phase boundary are to be preferred. As the result of an X-ray investigation of quenched iron-silicon alloys, Greiner and Jette4 have shown these materials to consist of a body-centered cubic (alpha) phase containing from o to 26.4 atomic per cent silicon at 600°C. The alloys containing from 26.4 to approximately 50 atomic per cent silicon consist of two phases at 600°C.; namely, alpha and eta. The eta phase corresponds to the stoichiometrical formula FeSi (33.4 wt. per cent Si).* The literature pertaining to the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys has been reviewed by Ackerman,5 who found disagreements in the results of various investigators on several parts of the system. Subsequent data on the constitution of the nickel-silicon alloys were reported by Osawa and Okamoto.6

Jan 1, 1943

By E. C. Potter

FUEL-OIL was first substituted for coal at these works in September, 1888. It was first applied in the converting-department to the battery of boilers, consisting of 14 tubular boilers, 16 feet in length by 5 feet in diameter. To operate these boilers with coal for 24 hours required 14 strikers, 3 ash-wheelers, 6 men unloading coal, and 2 water-tenders, making a total of 25 men. With fuel-oil the same boilers require for the same period 2 water-tenders and 4 men to attend to the burners, making a total of 6 men. This gives a saving of 19 men, which, at an average of $2 per day each, amounts to $38 per day. Comparing the consumption of oil with that of coal, we find that for the week ending January 5, 1889, with an ingot output of 6403 tons, 2731 barrels of fuel-oil were used as against a necessary consumption of coal for the same work of 848 tons, showing 3.22 barrels of fuel-oil to be equivalent to one ton of Indiana block-coal. Figuring oil at 60 cents per barrel, and coal at $2.15 per ton, we have as the cost of oil $1.93, as against $2.15 for its equivalent in coal. In December, 1888, the rail-mill battery of 26 boilers, of the same dimensions as those in the converting-department, was equipped for fuel-oil. For the week ending January 5, 1889, with a rail out-put of 5208 tons, 5987 barrels of oil were consumed, as against a necessary consumption of coal, to do the same work, of 1805 tons, showing 3.31 barrels of fuel-oil to be equivalent to one ton of Indiana block-coal, which at the costs named above would show $1.98 worth of fuel-oil to he equal to $2.15 worth of coal. The labor required to operate the rail-mill boilers for 24 hours, with coal as fuel,is: 26 stokers, 4 water-tenders, 6 ash-wheelers, 12 men unloading coal; total, 48 men. With oil as fuel, the same work requires 4 water-tenders and 6 men to attend to the burners; total, 10 men; a saving over coal of 38 men in 24 hours, which, at an average price of $2 per day, would be $76 per day. In the brief experience we have had with oil as fuel, we find that the efficiency of the boilers is somewhat increased and the repairs are

Jan 1, 1889

Jan 1, 1967

By Marius R. Campbell

VARIOUS classes of coals are recognized in this country at the present time. These classes depend largely upon physical characteristics rather than upon chemical composition, and consequently they cannot be accurately defined. The divisions into anthracite, semi-anthracite and semi-bituminous are fairly satisfactory; but the term bituminous embraces so large a variety of coal that it is of little value, and the term lignite is so loosely applied that it has little or no place in a scientific classification. At present there is no way of accurately defining the vari¬ous classes of coal, because no adequate scheme of classification, which applies to lignites as well as bituminous coal and anthracite bas been proposed. The object of this paper is to present such a scheme, which is based upon data obtained dur¬ing the past year by Prof. N. W. Lord,1 in charge of the chemical laboratory of the United States Geological Survey coal-testing plant at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis. All the classifications of coals proposed prior to 1877 were based either on physical characteristics or on proximate analyses, including all of the impurities. These schemes were illogical and highly unsatisfactory, for the physical properties of a coal give little indication of its true composition; and impurities, such as ash and sulphur, are largely the results of acci-

Sep 1, 1905

By C. Crussard, R. Tamhankar

It is the policy of The Metallurgical Society to provide, in the TRANSACTIONS OF THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY OF AIME, a prompt and accurate medium for publication of reports of significant new research in both the scientific and engineering aspects of metallurgy. Papers submitted to the Society are judged by competent reviewers accord-ing to established criteria for technical merit, accuracy, originality, and presentation. STAFF: Editor, Gerhurd Derge Carnegie Institute of Technology Schenley Park Pittsburgh 13, Pa. Editorial Assistant, M. A. Redmerski Staff Coordinator, James J. Burke THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: W. R. Hibbard, Jr., President; J. C. Kinnear, Jr., Past-President; John Chiprnan, Vice President; T. D. Jones, Treasurer; R. W. Shearman, Secretary. PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE OF THE METALLURGICAL SOCIETY: A. W. Thornton, Chairman; Dennis Carney, John Chip-man, J. C. Fulton, J. H. Hollomon, H. H. Kellogg, A. E. Lee, R. Maddin, J. D. Sullivan, and D. Swan. Review and selection of manuscripts is under the supervision of the following Publications Committees: Extractive Metallurgy Division: T. B. King, Chairman; S. J. Dickenson, R. P. Hermsdorf, R. Schuhmann, Jr., and P. T. Stroup. Institute of Metals Division: Robert Maddin, Chairman, F. Lincoln Vogel, Jr., Vice-chairman, W. A. Backofen, R. W. Balluffi, J. H. Bechtold, M. B. Bever, R. S. Busk, C. G. Goetzel, Paul Gordon, C. D. Graham, .Jr., Robert F. Hehemonn, R. I. Jaffee, F. E. Jaumot, Jr., Irving R. Kramer, A. J. Lena, Harold Margolin, C. J. McHorgue, Russell A. Meussner, J. B. Newkirk, H. W. Paxton, G. E. Pellissier, I. S. Servi, Alan U. Seybolt, A. J. Shaler, and Jack Washburn. Iron and Steel Division: J. C. Fulton, Chairman; T. B. King, F. C. Langenberg, W. 0. Philbrook, and T. 0. Winkler. Published bimonthly by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., 29 West 39th Street, New York 18, N. Y. Telephone: PEnnsylvania 6-9220. Subscription $20 per year for non-AIME members in United States and North, South, and Central America; $25, foreign; $5 for AIME members. Single copies, $4.00, single copies foreign, $5.00. The AIME is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed in its publications . . . Copyright 1958 by the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc. . . . Registered cable address, AIME New York ... Indexed in Engineering Index, Industrial Arts Index, and Chemical Abstracts... Second class postage paid at New Yark, N. Y., and Ann Arbor, Mich. Volume 212, Number 6.

Jan 1, 1959

By Bradley Stoughton

(Cleveland Meeting, October, 1912.) [SECRETARY&apos;S NOTE.-To avoid repetition of foot-notes, references to authorities are made in this paper by means of figures, referring to a numbered list in the appendix.-J. S.] INTRODUCTION. THIS paper gives the results : first, of a research into the somewhat extensive literature of titanium; and second, of a series of original tests upon the effect of titanium on iron castings. New investigations have also been made upon the effect of titanium on steel, but I hope to treat this subject in an independent paper at some later date, and, therefore, will not discuss the experiments in detail here. The combined results of this study, which extended over a period of more than two years, can be briefly summarized as follows: 1. Steel or cast-iron, in which the titanium is properly proportioned, and which has been properly treated, is improved in strength, toughness, and durability against wear, such as, for example, the wear of railroad-rails, of steel and chilled-iron .rolls, car-wheels, etc. 2. These improvements seem to be caused, not so much by the direct effect of titanium on the metal, as by its cleansing influence in removing harmful impurities, such as oxygen and oxides, nitrogen, occluded slags, and perhaps also sulphur. It appears also to reduce segregation, which would contribute to the same end. 3. In order that its effects may be fully realized, the treatment of steel or iron with titanium must be correctly performed. There are a few simple, but essential, details to be observed; if they are neglected, the best results cannot be expected. To illustrate by an example : A series of tests on cast iron

Nov 1, 1912

By Leslie C. Richards

The competitive position of producers of industrial minerals depends upon the delivered price of their product. Freight charges are a major factor in the sales to consumers. A comparison of freight rates on movements of limestone and silica rock in the Pacific Northwest shows a wide variance in mills per ton mile for like hauls, thereby favoring some localities over others. Introduction: Sooner or later the potential miner of industrial minerals reaches the conclusion that of the various factors he must consider, the marketing of his product is. the most important. The sooner he realizes this the better, as successful industrial mineral producers .will confirm. Herein lies a difference between i.ndustria1 mineral mining and metal mining. Often in the latter, technical problems of mining or concentrating are equal to or even surpass those of marketing. This is not meant to imply that there are no problems in mining and beneficiation of industrial minerals, but these usually are outweighed by the problem of marketing. Recentlv. an official of a nationally known corporation :i the elecl.ro-metallurgical industry made an industrial mineral survey in the Pacific Northwest. In the course of his investigation he interviewed producers and potential producers of the various industrial minerals scheduled for use in the plant now being constructed in this area. He stated that he was interested in only three factors: namely, (1) Can your product meet our specifications? (2) Are you able to supply our tonnage requirements? and (3) What will be the delivered price? If there are several sources of supply of sufficient grade and tonnage, as is often the case in the Northwest, then the third factor becomes the important and deciding one. While industrial minerals are usually sold f.0.b. cars with the freight being paid by the buyer, it is the delivered and riot the f.0.b. price that determines the competitive position of the producer and his industrial mineral product. Unfortunately for both the consumers and producers of industrial minerals in the Northwest, the sources are generally a considerable distance from the markets. This necessitates long rail hauls, for which transportation charges make up the largest share of the delivered cost and the delivered price of the product. Is it any wonder then, that rail rates play such an important part in the marketing of industrial minerals? In order to sell his product, the producer must be able to deliver to the market at a competitive price. It must be remembered that his largest cost factor is rail transportation, and that he is limited to markets that he can reach competitively. Since the cost of rail transportation is so important, let us compare various freight rates in the Northwest and attempt to determine their influence on marketing. A study of all rates on all industrial minerals transported in this area, is beyond the scope of this paper. For the purposes of comparison, let us consider limestone (broken, crushed, or ground), and silica rock. These are widely used industrial minerals, and are carried by several different rail routes from.the sources of supply to the centers of consumption in the Pacific Northwest. Markets and Sources of Supply: Limestone has a number of uses in western Oregon and Washington. Among them are agricultural lime for the soils of the Willamette Valley and southwestern Washington; paper rock for the mills in such cities as West Linn, Oregon City, Newberg, St. Helens, and Salem, Oregon, and Camas and Everett, Wash.; chemical and metallurgical-grade limestone for the metallurgical plants centering around Portland, and the Tacoma-Seattle areas&apos;; and sugar rock for the sugar refineries at Toppenish, Wash., and Nyssa, Oregon. Since limestone for cement manufacture is generally processed near the quarry, transportation

Jan 1, 1951

By Leslie C. Richards

Sooner or later the potential miner of industrial minerals reaches the conclusion that of the various factors he must consider, the marketing of his product is. the most important. The sooner he realizes this the better, as successful industrial mineral producers .will confirm. Herein lies a difference between i.ndustria1 mineral mining and metal mining. Often in the latter, technical problems of mining or concentrating are equal to or even surpass those of marketing. This is not meant to imply that there are no problems in mining and beneficiation of industrial minerals, but these usually are outweighed by the problem of marketing. Recentlv. an official of a nationally known corporation :i the elecl.ro-metallurgical industry made an industrial mineral survey in the Pacific Northwest. In the course of his investigation he interviewed producers and potential producers of the various industrial minerals scheduled for use in the plant now being constructed in this area. He stated that he was interested in only three factors: namely, (1) Can your product meet our specifications? (2) Are you able to supply our tonnage requirements? and (3) What will be the delivered price? If there are several sources of supply of sufficient grade and tonnage, as is often the case in the Northwest, then the third factor becomes the important and deciding one. While industrial minerals are usually sold f.0.b. cars with the freight being paid by the buyer, it is the delivered and riot the f.0.b. price that determines the competitive position of the producer and his industrial mineral product. Unfortunately for both the consumers and producers of industrial minerals in the Northwest, the sources are generally a considerable distance from the markets. This necessitates long rail hauls, for which transportation charges make up the largest share of the delivered cost and the delivered price of the product. Is it any wonder then, that rail rates play such an important part in the marketing of industrial minerals? In order to sell his product, the producer must be able to deliver to the market at a competitive price. It must be remembered that his largest cost factor is rail transportation, and that he is limited to markets that he can reach competitively. Since the cost of rail transportation is so important, let us compare various freight rates in the Northwest and attempt to determine their influence on marketing. A study of all rates on all industrial minerals transported in this area, is beyond the scope of this paper. For the purposes of comparison, let us consider limestone (broken, crushed, or ground), and silica rock. These are widely used industrial minerals, and are carried by several different rail routes from.the sources of supply to the centers of consumption in the Pacific Northwest. Markets and Sources of Supply: Limestone has a number of uses in western Oregon and Washington. Among them are agricultural lime for the soils of the Willamette Valley and southwestern Washington; paper rock for the mills in such cities as West Linn, Oregon City, Newberg, St. Helens, and Salem, Oregon, and Camas and Everett, Wash.; chemical and metallurgical-grade limestone for the metallurgical plants centering around Portland, and the Tacoma-Seattle areas&apos;; and sugar rock for the sugar refineries at Toppenish, Wash., and Nyssa, Oregon. Since limestone for cement manufacture is generally processed near the quarry, transportation

Jan 1, 1951

By Stanislaus Skowronski

OVERPOLED copper, as commonly defined, is copper which has been excessively reduced during the poling period of the refining process. Owing to its porosity, such copper is unfit for commercial purposes. The cause of this phenomenon is undoubtedly the lack of oxides in the copper, yet this does not completely explain it. Refined copper of the same "pitch" and "set" varies considerably in oxygen contents, and analyses of overpoled bars also show similar wide differences; moreover, it is possible to melt copper in crucibles so as to obtain bars that are practically free from oxygen although they show a "tough pitch" and "level set" surface. Frederick Johnson advances the following theory: The regulation of the quantity of oxygen in copper is the keynote of all copper refining. It is the presence of a Well defined proportion of oxygen in the form of cuprous oxide, forming a copper-cuprous oxide eutectic, Which enables copper to be cast free from blowholes. It seems that When oxygen is present, other gases are less soluble in molten copper; When oxygen is absent, or is present in insufficient quantity, the copper dissolves other gases, such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, Which are insoluble in the copper when solid, and, being rejected during the process of solidification, causes internal porosity and external ridges and excrescences.1 The "level set" of Wire bars, etc., is entirely the result of a compromise between the occluded gases and cuprous oxide. With excess of the former the metal would be "overpitch" and spongy, While an excess of the latter would result in the metal being "underpitch" and brittle.2 The result of the absorption and subsequent expulsion of reducing gases, carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and the effect of this action. on the overpoling of copper are in dispute; the literature on the subject is full of contradictory statements and will continue to be so until better analytical methods have been developed. Sulphur, however, is tangible. The refiner can see it in his button sample and consequently attributes to it any trouble that may happen during the melting of the copper.

Jan 3, 1918

By William I. Busenbark, Elmer C. Newman

At Bingham Canyon, the world&apos;s largest open-pit copper mine, annual grease consumption is in the neighborhood of 109 000 kg (240,000 lb), all of which was 544 (120-16) purchased, warehoused, and distributed in 54-kg (120-1b) and 180-kg (400-1b) drums. While perhaps a menial and mundane chore, grease distribution shows on the ledger as a significant expense item. To improve labor and cost performance, Kennecott maintenance engineers undertook a study to find the most direct method for moving multi purpose grease (MPG) from the refinery to the point of final consumption. What they found was a direct vendor system for hulk grease so simple and flexible that long-established drum distribution is being phased out in favor of the newer method throughout 75% of the operation.

Jan 9, 1977

By C. E. Corson

THE experiments of which the results and significance are set forth in this paper do not by any means cover the whole subject of the heat-treatment of the material referred to, yet they constitute a contribution to that general subject, rather than to the special department of annealing. The material here considered is acid open-hearth steel, containing from 0.50 to 0.80 per cent of carbon, with a nearly uniform percentage of other elements. This class of steel is rapidly increasing in commercial importance. It is even rumored that the rail-specifications of some railroads will hereafter require open-hearth steel. Yet this particular grade seems to have received less study and description from the standpoint of the metallographist than many others. The investigation here described was directed to the following points:-Steel containing about 0.50 per cent, of carbon : 1. The structure as related to the temperature, at the same rate of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to temperature at different rates of cooling; 3. The structure and physical properties as related to different finishing-temperatures and different rates of cooling; 4. The bearing of these observations upon the statement of Prof. Albert Sauveur.1

Sep 1, 1906