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By John Dasher

The analyses reported on in this paper indicate that there are hydrometallurgical routes from sulphide concentrates to copper that are potentially competitive with smelters which are not permitted to emit sulphur oxides. The various hydrometallurgical processes, and their economics, are discussed.

Jan 1, 1973

By T. T. Tomimatsu

This? Bureau of Mines paper discusses the corporate structure dynamics, methods of financing, and financial assessment approaches that should be utilized to evaluate the economic health of the coal industry. It suggests rates of return and other measures of corporate economies necessary to attract capital required to finance emerging coal demand, plus impact of coal sales to total revenues. The study illuminates the activities of 30 selected coal-producing companies, including their subsidiaries or affiliates, that were responsible for approximately 60 percent of the total U.S. production in 1974. The selected firms are not all primary coal producers; many of the larger producer's are classified by the financial institutions as petroleum, metal, and steel producers, public utilities, or chemical industries. The bituminous coal industry is highly competitive as to price, service, and quality of pronuct and is subject to competition from other noncoal energy sources. The top 15 bituminous coal-producing companies mined about 46.6 per-cent of the Nation's total production in 1974, and the balance of approximately 3,885 companies were responsible for the rest of the production. Thus, the U.S. bituminous coal industry is not an oligopoly. Today, about 65 percent of the Nation's total coal production is consumed by electric power utilities and 26 percent by steel, space heating, and other industries; the balance of 9 percent is exported.

Jan 1, 1976

By Michel L. Bilodeau, Brian W. Mackenzie, Dallas W. Davis

"The paper formulates an evaluation procedure for examining the effects of location on the economics of developing mineral deposits. This methodology is applied to assess locational aspects of Nova Scotia's competitive position f or mine development relative to other Canadian regions and provinces. The appraisal concerns two representative mine development opportunities, a medium-size open-pit tungsten deposit, and a small underground gold deposit. The influence of regional economic conditions is initially assessed. Then, the consequences of taxation are isolated. Finally, the combined impact of regional and taxation conditions is examined. SettingThe economic potential of mining may be assessed in a number of ways. One approach, increasingly used for both corporate planning and government policy purposes, is to evaluate the competitive position of an actual or potential mineral producer in the international marketplace relative to other suppliers.Such examinations of competitive position vary from cost league comparisons of breakeven costs for operating mines, through the assessment of medium-term costs associated with developing new mine capacity, to long-term evaluations of the economics of mineral supply from the start of exploration. The complexity of the analysis increase s with the scope and timeframe of interest. Many factors are involved. One component of competitive position is the quality of the mineral resources available. Other key factors include existing technology, wage and salary rates, labour productivity, the cost of capital, infra structure requirements, distances from sources of materials supply an d to mineral markets, management attributes, organizational efficiency, government mineral policies (particularly taxation), and inflation and exchange rates. The paper fits within this competitive position framework.The variable economic conditions which exist within Canada have a direct bearing on the viability of mine development and, thereby, on mineral exploration potential. The paper examines locational aspects of Nova Scotia 's competitive position."

Jan 1, 1986

By Wesley W. Eckles

Microcomputer technology has begun to revolutionize petroleum engineering. Petroleum engineers' use of relatively inexpensive personal computers (PC's) is likely to continue expanding rapidly. Since 1982 SPE's Microcomputer Applications Committee has developed a Society-wide users group, a bi-monthly newsletter (MICROCOMP NEWS), an SPE Short Course, a hardware and software distribution program, and a world wide electronic network (SPE NET). The purpose of this paper is to share SPE's experience in creating a dynamic program for meeting the individual member's need in the application of microcomputers to petroleum engineering. My hope is that this will encourage other engineering and scientific organizations to provide similar programs for their members.

Jan 1, 1985

By L. A. Conley

This report, covering the period January through December 1976, contains abstracts of articles related to cost engineering and economics for chemical and petroleum plants, mining, and other mineral industries from the following periodicals: 1. Air Pollution Control Association Journal 2. Chemical Engineering 3. Chemical Engineering Journal 4. Chemtech 5. Coal Age 6. Coal Mining and Processing 7. Combustion 8. Drilling-DCW 9. Electrical World 10. Engineering and Mining Journal

Jan 1, 1977

By B. F. Westfall

Throughout the 1960's and 1970's world trade grew rapidly, reaching a peak of USS1.8 trillion in 1980. Since then the world recession of the early 1980's shrunk trade to about US$1.6 trillion. The reduced cash flow to developing economies made it difficult to service their huge international debts, Nowadays lenders are reluctant to grant Third World countries additional credit. The shortage of export financing, plus trade barriers set up by developed countries, is further inhibiting international trade. Therefore, countries are turning to new and creative alternatives to financing imports of consumer as well as of investment goods. Non-cash transactions, including different forms of countertrade, are rapidly growing alternatives to traditional trade financing patterns. In 1983 about 30% of international trade, or close to US$600 bill ion, were presumably done by non-cash transactions, up from barely 2% in 1976. By year 2000, half the world trade is likely to be conducted on basis of barter. As of mid-1984 some 88 nations used countertrade regularly and Governments of at least 15 Latin American countries had arranged or mandated commercial countertrade.

Jan 1, 1986

By C. D. Harrison

The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments specify national objectives for reducing sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants System-wide reductions can be achieved by combining various emissions controls technologies and allowances, or compliance credits, that can be purchased, sold, or traded. As part of the Coal Quality Expert development project funded by U.S. Department of Energy and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Black & Veatch has developed an interactive computer tool, the Acid Rain Advisor (ARA). ARA allows the user to develop integrated system-wide compliance plans by comparing the costs and emissions reduction benefits for emissions allowances and various SO2 control technologies such as coal cleaning, fuel switching, and scrubber retrofits.

Jan 1, 1992

By J. F. Myers

AT the Regional meeting in Columbus, Ohio, in September 1949, the authors presented a progress report of the first year's operation with a Hardinge tricone mill in closed circuit with a Dorr hydroscillator. The present report covers our findings on this grinding circuit to January, 1950. In order to clarify our position, the authors wish to state that no invention or discovery is claimed. The Tennessee grinding circuit is simply an engineered arrangement of known equipment arranged to incorporate all of the recognized efficiency factors of comminution as they are known today. As we concluded our first report, it was not clear how effective the Tennessee mode of operation would be on harder ores. The only information we had at that time was that the Bond grindability test at 48-mesh gave 6.04 g of undersize per revolution. A later test on the same sample at 100-mesh reduced this to 2.04 g, which is definitely in the harder ore class, and which makes the reported 8.80 kw-hr per ton of -200-mesh produced a very creditable figure.

Jan 1, 1950

By D. R. Wilburn

This summary of international mineral exploration activities for 2012 draws upon information from industry sources, published literature and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) specialists. The summary provides data on exploration budgets by region and mineral commodity, identifies significant mineral discoveries and areas of mineral exploration, discusses government programs affecting the mineral exploration industry and presents analyses of exploration activities performed by the mineral industry. Three sources of information are reported and analyzed in this annual review of international exploration for 2012: 1) budgetary statistics expressed in U.S. nominal dollars provided by SNL Metals Economics Group (MEG) of Halifax, Nova Scotia; 2) regional and site-specific exploration activities that took place in 2012 as compiled by the USGS and 3) regional events including economic, social and political conditions that affected exploration activities, which were derived from published sources and unpublished discussions with USGS and industry specialists.

May 1, 2013

By Paul M. Tyler, R. M. Santmyers

Platinum and its allied metals osmium, iridium, rhodium , palladium, and ruthenium are the most costly of the better-known metals and combine properties that make them unique among the elements . For a number of isolated uses substitutes have been found which are cheaper and quite as satisfactory ; but none will replace platinum in many of its varied uses , and there is a large and growing demand for purposes for which no economical substitutes are known . As this paper is being written the supply of platinum tends further to increase as a result of the exploitation of newly developed resources and the expansion of production from older sources . In obedience to economic law prices have declined steadily . Buyers , always reluctant to commit themselves on a falling market , have maintained a waiting attitude , and consumption trends are not clearly indicated . Should platinum again approach the price of gold , the natural tendency would be to use more of the metal . In recent years , however , the industrial and scientific uses of platinum have become subordinate to its consumption in jewelry . In matters of personal adornment the popular whim and not practical utility is the dominant factor in demand , and it does not follow that lowered prices will stimulate demand . The substitution of white gold and certain plated goods for platinum may be checked by cheaper platinum , but a fickle public that turned from gold to platinum when platinum became the more costly metal can not with certainty be expected to buy more platinum jewelry because more of the metal than formerly may now be had for the same price . The dearth of platinum during and for some years after the World War had a profound effect upon prices , and this in turn wrought important changes in the field of consumption . When prices advanced the chemical industry, formerly the leading consumer of platinum, was forced to economize in its consumption of the metal and to substitute other metals whenever it could . Somewhat similar conditions resulted in the electrical industry and in the use of platinum in dentistry . Some of these former outlets are permanently closed , and others may be reopened now that platinum prices have receded to pre-war levels , but despite the general expansion of industrial and scientific activity since 1913 the demand for platinum outside the jewelry trade has suffered a net decline . Since the metallurgy of platinum is relatively simple the reason for its high price is its relative scarcity in the earth's crust . An interesting speculation set forth by certain geologists attributes the extraordinarily high density of the interior of the earth in part to the presence of iron alloyed with substantial amounts of platinum and other related metals . In support of this hypothesis it may be said that platinum is often found in meteorites , and known deposits in the earth's crust are all of deep - seated origin . However , even if there were a high concentration of platinum in the interior of the earth it would be next to impossible at the present state of our knowledge to make it available , and the world would continue to depend for its supply on deposits found within minable depths below the surface . For many years before 1914 the world obtained its supply of platinum metals primarily from Russia , which before the war produced as much as 300,000 troy ounces in a year , or approximately 95 per cent of the world output . Despite fluctuations due to internal political disturbances Colombia managed to account for 3 to 4 per cent , leaving the rest of the world to furnish the remaining 1 to 2 per cent .

Feb 1, 1931

Jan 1, 1900

In the pursuit of commercial solutions for environmental issues, individual problems are often identified, considered and resolved in isolation from other environmental matters and always at the end of the cycle û after the problem has been created. Inter-relationships are neglected if they are not seen to obviously impact on a specific problem and the issue at hand is plucked from the environmental landscape and dealt with in total isolation to all else. In a Zero Waste approach to environmental matters, all outputs are pursued as potential inputs. Industrial processes are viewed as a variation on natureÆs theme and opportunity pursued above all else. When viewed from this perspective, industry appears to have forgotten its origins. It has forgotten that it is principally about people. The juggernaut of global trade has forgotten that it is a small part of a big landscape and that its principal participants, people, cannot exist without healthy soil. Commercial activity in all parts of the world relies heavily on the ability of agriculture to produce the necessary inputs for industrial production. The care and nurturing of our soils is fundamental, not only to the survival of humanity, but also to the economic systems that support that humanity and to the industry which profits by it. Actual levels of domestic recycling in many countries around the world seldom reflect the 90 plus per cent desire to recycle recorded in surveys conducted by local authorities in almost every country. If the desire to recycle is far removed from the end result, why is it that the systems provided are so ineffective? It is obvious that what we do need is a recycling system that both engages and rewards the participant and stimulates the innate desire to support the environment. A recent trial in New South Wales, Australia, demonstrated that by giving individual households credits for recycling organic wastes, not only will contamination levels fall dramatically, but increased yields, improved soil structure, improved land values, reduced fertiliser costs and increased water use efficiency give the farmer good economic reasons for purchasing and applying quality composted product. By underpinning and securing the agricultural community, we secure the future of industry. The æCity to SoilÆ project linked the economic on-farm benefits of compost use with reduced contamination through the provision of rewards paid for by the purchase of product by the farmer.

Jan 1, 2006

By Frederick Bird

This paper is based upon a review of studies of mostly Canadian mining companies in Chile, northern Canada, Tanzania, Guatemala, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In spite of often well-meaning efforts most mining firms produce wealth in developing areas that largely benefit those immediately involved, sometimes neighboring communities, and often those in the governing strata. Typically mining takes place in enclaves and fosters enclave development, rather than the kind of inclusive wealth development favored by the recently UN published Inclusive Wealth Report. One way by which mining operations can foster more inclusive wealth development is to adopt much broader approaches towards the construction of the various physical and social infrastructures ? roads, water, electricity, health services, schools, security ? required for their own operations by collaborating with diverse regional, provincial, and/or national agencies and businesses to develop these infrastructures for larger populations and areas beyond the immediate sites where they are operating. Established mining firms can also foster more inclusive wealth development by establishing more formal, collaborative relationships with artisanal miners.

Aug 1, 2013

By Mory Ghomshei

As fossil fuels become depleted over the next century, it is imperative that Canada and other countries examine ways to transition to other sources of energy, particularly renewable resources. A critical obstacle to developing Canada?s renewable energy resources is the scarcity of infrastructure to wheel the generated electricity to a viable market. For each megawatt of renewable electrical power, a maximum of 1 km of connecting power line is typically feasible. This means that hydropower, geothermal, and wind power projects with capacities up to 100 MW must be located within a maximum of 100 km of a main power line in order to be economically viable. With a total length of about 1200 km, the proposed Northern Gateway oil pipeline project creates an excellent opportunity to become a corridor that can seed renewable energy projects in Northern British Columbia and Alberta. Utility companies must build new infrastructure to provide the electricity for constructing and operating the proposed pipeline. The pipeline and linked power line infrastructure therefore, should be designed and built with consideration to create an energy highway to the significant renewable energy resources, such as hydro, wind, and geothermal, in the vicinity of the proposed pipeline. Some of the important renewable energy resources in northern British Columbia can be developed in connection with the proposed pipeline. It is estimated that close to 2,500 MW of commercially viable wind, geothermal and run-of-river power resources are present in the proximity of the proposed pipeline corridor. While oil flows westward from the Alberta bitumen fields, the generated green power can flow eastward to help the Canadian oil sand industry to offset as much as 10 Megatons of carbon emissions per year. The generated carbon credits are equivalent to 75% of the emissions associated with extraction of the 525,000 barrels per day of oil from oil sands, intended to be carried by the pipeline.

Aug 1, 2013

By C. S. Simons

This paper presents a review of the extractive processes used in the production of nickel, with emphasis on developments since the beginning of the Second World War. Attention is given to the factors, many outside the nickel industry itself, which determined the direction of process research and strongly influenced the ultimate commitments to industrialize the resulting developments. An example of such a factor is the sudden surge in demand, far exceeding the then available nickel production capacity, that was caused by the advent of World War II; the result was the first serious consideration ever given to low- grade laterites as a viable source of primary nickel. Other factors discussed include such items as process development in the extraction of other metals - particularly copper; the availability of increasingly sophisticated materials of const- ruction; the advent of the "environmentalist" and related political developments; the massive escalation in the price of energy - particularly oil. The paper concludes with an attempt to forecast the nature of the most effective nickel process of the future, based on extrapolation from the economic and political situation that exists today.

Jan 1, 1988

By Gale L. Hubred

Kennecott?s Ledgemont Laboratory developed the Cuprion Process to recover metal values from manganese nodules in the early 1970s. A reducing leach of monovalent cuprous ion attacks the manganese oxide matrix, converting the manganese dioxide to manganese carbonate and releasing the copper, nickel, cobalt, and zinc as ammine complexes. Cuprous ion is generated by contacting leach liquor with carbon monoxide. Copper, and nickel, are recovered by solvent extraction and electrowinning. Cobalt is precipitated as cobalt sulfide and recovered as cobalt powder. Manganese, molybdenum, and zinc can be recovered optionally but have not been included in this process. Kennecott authors have described aspects of the process, but the Cuprion process has not been revealed except in patents. Tables are included for capital and operating costs and revenue. Even though economic recovery of nodules is not anticipated in the foreseeable future, some of the process steps may have application in other places. The Ledgemont Laboratory was a unique operation we think worth documenting. The report is based upon work done up until the mid 1970s. The report represents the work of the entire Kennecott nodule team. It is this author?s intention to save this result and credit the work of that nodule team. The paper is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Herbert Barner, a key member of the team who died in 2003.

Jan 1, 2005

By Simon D. Strauss

The recession that began in late 1980 has proved to be not only prolonged and severe, but in certain ways unique in its effect on the mineral industries among the periods of economic slowdown experienced in the Western world since the end of World War II. This time almost all minerals have been affected. In previous business turndowns, by contrast, some mineral sectors have with-stood economic adversity well. They experienced little or no adverse effect-thanks either to a strong secular expansion in the markets for their particular product or to specific factors that caused demand to be well maintained. For example, aluminum, molybdenum, and nickel are three metals that enjoyed extraordinary growth in applications during the years 1946-1973. These metals were little affected during the recessions that occurred in that era. Similarly, coal did not suffer a pronounced drop in sales in the 1974-75 turndown because, with the price of oil rising sharply, a switch away from oil and back to coal was clearly indicated for some energy-intensive applications. Oil itself was largely impervious to the ups and downs of the business cycle until very recently. And the precious metals, gold and silver, have often been regarded as benefiting from reduced economic activity because labor becomes more available, productivity rises, and operating costs diminish. In the current recession, however, no major mineral has escaped the broad trend. The secular growth factors that were previously so evident for aluminum, molybdenum, and nickel have disappeared, at least temporarily. The stable pricing behavior that previously characterized all three of these commodities has been replaced by extreme price weakness and apparent inability of the major producers to continue their roles as market leaders. Coal and oil both have suffered from a sharp drop in energy requirements. There are those who now anticipate a collapse of the market control over oil prices so clearly exercised by OPEC since 1973. If oil prices are no longer effectively controlled by the governments of the exporting countries, then coal prices are also certain to be affected. And the combination of high interest rates, tight money, and a change in public perceptions of precious metals put the skid under gold and silver quotations in 1981 and early 1982. Although inflation has been viewed as the scourge of most Western countries ever since the oil crises of 1973-74, prices-in constant dollars-of most minerals have not risen. On the contrary, with the exception of the precious metals and oil, for most minerals the prices that prevailed at the end of 1982 were close to the levels of the Great Depression of the 1930s in constant dollar terms. Table 1 compares prices for copper, lead, zinc, and aluminum at the end of 1982 with the average prices in 1934, stated in constant 1967 dollars. This emphasis on prices for mineral commodities reflects the fact that profits of mining enterprises vary directly with the level of prices. Manufacturing and retailing enterprises march to a different tune. They establish sales prices based on costs. Their profits tend to vary with volume. Commodities are for all practical purposes fungible, that is the advantages of known brands in marketing manufactured goods have little application in a commodity market. Thus the individual seller of minerals is unable to establish his sales prices. Except where a monopoly is present, he must sell at the going market. His option is to abstain from selling if he finds the price unremunerative. In past recessions, some mineral producers chose to do precisely that-either accumulating a substantial share of their output in inventory or, in prolonged downturns, abstaining from production. During the current recession, however, private-sector mining companies did not have the option of accumulating inventories to any great extent. Capital costs for new mineral projects or for expansion of existing facilities have escalated at an alarming rate since the early 1970s. Added to this has been the heavy cost of installing pollution control or safety equipment to comply with the regulations adopted in most industrialized countries (and particularly the United States) since 1968. The consequence has been that the financial position of most major mineral enterprises in mid-1980 was already strained. To finance increased inventories meant incurring additional funded debt at high interest costs, thus impairing the concern's credit rating. Management Choices Private-sector managements have had to face up to the alternative of either continuing to produce at an unchanged rate and marketing output at unremunerative prices or reducing output. The latter has meant either operating at a curtailed rate, with con-

Jan 3, 1983

By William Gleason

"It has been more than 10 years since Montana Resources’ copper/molybdenum mine has had a lost-time injury at its site in Butte, MT. With more than 350 employees and an average production of about 15.5 Mt/a (17 million stpy), which includes 29.5 kt (65 million lbs) of copper and 4 kt (9 million lbs) of molybdenum, the mine’s journey to a decade of exemplary safety is an impressive feat that has required hard work, commitment and, most of all, leadership from every level of the operation.It has not always been an easy journey, nor has it been one without scrapes and bumps along the way, but it is one that has produced stellar results. Mike McGivern, vice president of human resources, and Pete Steilman, safety manager at the mine, spoke with Mining Engineering about how the operation transformed from a site that was accustomed to collecting citations for safety violations to one that is now collecting awards for its safety record.Simply put, Montana Resources has made safety a value and the people its top priority.The operations faced many predictable challenges in 2003, when the mine was being brought back online after three years of sitting in care-and-maintenance status. It had been shuttered in 2000 because of low commodity prices and high operating costs, and, in the three years that the mine was idled, the equipment became dilapidated, and some of it was no longer in compliance. Less than half of the workforce returned to the site for the restart, and the team was challenged with getting the gears turning again to produce copper and molybdenum. But the most daunting challenge of all of was keeping the workforce safe during the transition.In the first few years of operation the mine racked up citations from the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) at an alarming pace, so much so that in May 2006, Montana Resources received a letter from the MSHA District Office informing the company that the operation was being placed on the Potential Pattern of Violations list due to its excessive citation history and high rate of significant and substantial citations. It was clear that something significant had to be done to change the course of action at the mine."

Oct 1, 2019

By A. D. Dalvi

Economics, Resources, Environment and Technology are the major driving forces in the base metals industry. However, these factors are intertwined and together will propel the industry in the future. The demand for metals has grown with economic expansion, between 2 to 4 % p.a. The current growth cycle has been driven by economic expansion in China where the demand for base metals has risen from - 7 % of the world demand in the 90's to - 25 % of world demand today, and rising. Base metals are commodities and their demand and price are cyclical. Historically metal prices have declined in constant dollars, forcing the industry to reduce costs, increase productivity and increase the scale of operation for economies of scale. Due to resource depletion and capacity expansion the industry is driven to expand its reserve and resource base. However, in the case of sulphide deposits of copper and nickel it appears to be a losing battle. For nickel the laterites represent a vast source at this time. Their development requires development of new technologies to make these resources economic. Emission reduction is being increasingly mandated in most jurisdictions with all governments enacting progressively more stringent regulations. The industry has been responding with technological innovation. With the Kyoto protocol there is a push to reduce energy intensity in metal production. Technological innovation is driven by all the other factors and is leading to novel ways of doing exploration, mining and processing, that would maximize resource delineation and utilization, reduce costs, increase productivity, reduce energy consumption, maximize asset utilization and reduce environmental affects. Development of alternative technologies such as Pressure Acid Leach of laterite for nickel, bio-leaching, heap leaching, SX-EW etc are being adopted to achieve the aims of the industry.

Jan 1, 2005

By Arcy R., D&apos George

A process for removing sulfate from Great Salt Lake brines and other natural brines, including sea water, has been developed. Sulfate is quantitatively removed by precipitation as barium sulfate in a cyclic process employing ion-exchange techniques. Barium is continously recovered and recycled, and sodium carbonate and sulfur or sulfuric acid are produced as byproducts in quantities sufficient to more than defray the cost of desulfation.

Jan 1, 1967