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By F. R. Erick Mulder

"AbstractTwo bottom-hole samples have been taken from two new completions in the Turner Valley field, Royalite Lowery No. 8 on the west flank and Royalite No. 73, which was deepened into a lower fault block, on the northeast flank. From the bottom-hole oil of Royalite Lowary No. 8 a synthetic sample was prepared to simulate the original fluid in the reservoir, saturated at the gas-oil contact conditions. The sample from Royalite Lewery No. 8 has been shown to be the original fluid present at this well and represents the oil phase near the oil-water contact in• the reservoir. Complete chemical analysis, P.V.T., and viscosity data have been obtained on these reservoir fluids, which represent the range of saturation from the gas-oil to the oil-water contact in the Turner Valley oil structures. Sampling techniques and the application of the analytical data to reservoir conditions and field operations are discussed. Super-compressibility curves for an average separator tail gas have also been prepared. These data have not been available before. They will be of fundamental value in futu.re reservoir engineering studies of this field and will also serve as a guide in determining operating practices."

Jan 1, 1950

By J. W. Motter

Currently, virtually all new electric power generation systems under construction are designed with natural gas as the primary fuel. Factors driving these construction decisions involve sustained low prices for natural gas, environ-mental (and consequent regulatory) risks associated with the use of coal for power generation, and relatively high costs of construction for conventional coal-fired power plants. Despite the unarguable abundance of coal in the US. and worldwide, a fundamental question arises: What will be the role of coal in electric power generation in the 21st century? Congress, recognizing the vital and strategic importance of preserving the coal option for electric power generation, authorized the Clean Coal Technology Program. This pro-gram, with original funding in excess of $2,500 million, is intended to promote the demonstration and commercialization of a new generation of clean, efficient coal-based energy technologies through collaboration and partnering with private industry. The two technologies being demonstrated under this program which are the key to the continued use of this nation's huge coal reserves are coal gasification and the pressurized fluid bed. Either or both of these technologies, coupled with a combined cycle will pro-vide the continuing future coal option, while responding to increasingly more restrictive environmental standards. Recent Congressional budget-cutting efforts, however, could threaten the effectiveness of that model program, and ultimately other subsequent government-industry collaboration.

Jan 1, 1996

By H. V. Flagg

OPERATION of a modern steel plant presents a curious anomaly. Large-scale operations, in which large volumes or heavy weights of materials are involved, are not usually subject to close control or narrow specifications. On the other hand, operations that call for a high degree of precision are usually carried out under carefully controlled conditions with delicate, precise machinery and tools, and production is made secondary to quality. In a modern steel mill both extremes are taken as a matter of course. A strip mill making auto-body sheets must supply its customers with sheets that all come within a tolerance of plus or minus 0.003 in. in gauge at any point from side to side or end to end, and without blemishes either of color or surface. Sheets that were considered par excellence as recently as ten years ago could not even find a market today. Such exacting requirements have made necessary a nicety of control that approaches the watchmaker's art. Notwithstanding this necessity for precision, the scale of operation is stupendous.

Jan 1, 1940

By F. Taylor Ostrander

Some countries are infinitely poorer than others in mineral resources-despite the perfect equality of their political leaders ambitions. Compare the mineral poverty of Kenya and Tanganyika with the riches of Katanga Province and Northern Rhodesia. Compare Paraguay with Chile, There never has been any equality in the distribution of nature's wealth. Minerals cannot play any role at all in economic development where they don't exist, and there are bound to be differential rates of economic development where there are basic differences in the wealth of mineral resources available. Africa is my principal area of interest and I know that there is an unfortunate but widespread misconception about Africa's "vast mineral resources, "its "untapped mineral wealth." Why is it untapped? Why is it undeveloped?

Jan 1, 1963

By L. Heber Cole

In making this plea for a better and more sympathetic understanding of the non-metallic industry, I do not for one minute wish to give the impression that I in any way belittle the wonderful strides that have been made in the exploitation of our metallics. We in Canada can be justly proud of our Sudburys, Norandas, Flin Fions, and of the remarkable growth of the Consolidated in British Columbia, and at the same time, without in the !east detracting from these worthy undertakings, be equally as proud of our asbestos, gypsum, salt, and coal deposits, as well as of our building-stone and limestone industries. If, in my remarks, I have occasion to compare the metallic with the non-metallic industry, I do so, not with any idea of dimming the glory which the metallics of Canada have gained- not only in our own country, but in the world at large-but for the purpose? of bringing to your attention the fact, perhaps not very well recognized, that Canada contains deposits of non-metallics well worth y of your serious consideration. In the past 33 years, namely, since 1895, the value of non-metallics produced in Canada has exceeded the value of metallics in 19 of the years, and for the last three years has been increasing rapidly. The war years (1915-1918 inclusive) naturally saw an intensive metallic production, but since that time, with the exception of 1925, when there was a general depression throughout the whole country, the non-metallics have been in the ascendency.

Jan 1, 1929

By Benjamin L. Miller

THE essential differences expressed by the different speakers participating in this symposium concern merely the relative emphasis placed on the subjects that are commonly included under the term "geophysics" and the branches of science that form the basis for investigations in this field. In order to appreciate the present situation it may be profitable to briefly refer to a few historical matters. One can find almost countless descriptions of geological phenomena long antedating the introduction of the title of "geology," which has been credited to Richard de Bury in the fourteenth century. Interpretations, when they were offered, were generally pure speculation. Only toward the close of the eighteenth century do we find theories developed as the result of observations and tested by additional observations. It is difficult to select and give proper credit to the individual who was particularly responsible for turning geology into a distinctly observational science. William Smith, who has been called the "Father of English Geology," certainly represents the period when observation was the only method used. As he traveled through the British Isles, "sometimes 10,000 miles in a year," he was continually making notes of his observations. Geikie says: "His plain, solid, matter of fact intellect never branched into theory or speculation, but occupied itself wholly in the observation of facts." William Smith, with others of his time, definitely laid firmly the foundations on which modern geology has been built. Field and laboratory observations can no longer be said to constitute the sole basis for geologic contributions but we have not laid aside the methods of Smith and his followers. It is folly to underestimate the fundamental value of the observational part of geology in the present. The objection to purely observational geology is that it is mainly qualitative and not quantitative, general and not specific. No one can deny this charge and probably there are few who do not welcome every method or process whereby we can put aside generalities for definite established values. Physics is the science that has particularly come to the aid of the geologist in this respect. CONTRIBUTIONS OF PHYSICS It is not the intent of the writer to enumerate or to evaluate all of the contributions to geologic advance in the field of physics. A few only are used for the purpose of illustration. When Clarence King, Director of the United States Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, invited Ferdinand Zirkel to study 2500 thin sections of rocks collected from the western United States, the use of the microscope came into general use. Zirkel's report was published in 1876. He was not the first to use transmitted light for microscopic rock determination, some work having been done by Henry Clifton Sorby and others some years earlier, but he was the first to put into general use this method. We may well claim that this

Jan 1, 1941

By Harvey N. Davis

MUCH has been written and said during the last twenty years about the place of the engineer in modern life, about the fundamental role that he plays both in developing and in maintaining the material foundations of modern civilization, about the advantages, and also the dangers, of the machine age that he has inaugurated, about the Frankenstein problems that he has unconcernedly foisted upon a generation utterly unable to cope with them, and about the obligation that rests upon him to stop inventing machines and turn his almost legendary energy and skill to inventing institutions that will constitute a solution of the problems he has raised, and contrariwise about his utter inability to offer wise or useful counsel in fields outside the narrow boundaries of his technical training.

Jan 1, 1938

By C. M. Shigley

Tan record of the largest magnesium plant in the country utilizing sea water as a primary raw material stands as another victory in the struggle for large-scale production of pure chemical elements from the oceans. Bromine was the first element to be economically and commercially recovered when, in 1933, a six million pound per year unit was built on the Atlantic Coast near Wilmington, North Carolina, by the Ethyl-Dow Chemical Co.1 The bromine was reacted with ethylene to produce ethylene dibromide, a necessary associate of tetraethyl lead in ethyl antiknock fluid. Within eight years that plant was doubled and redoubled, and another large unit was put into operation at Freeport, Texas, taking bromine from the Gulf of Mexico. In 1940, in fortunate anticipation of the impending demand for magnesium and the limitations of the production from natural brines, the Dow Chemical Co. turned again to the sea, and designed and erected a plant at Freeport to produce 18,000,000 lb. of magnesium per year from sea water.2 In March 1941, two months after the new plant had been put into successful operation, construction of an 18,000,000-lb. Government-financed addition was started. Late in 1941, as a part of the $400,000,000 defense program intended to produce 600,000,000 t0 700,000,000 lb. of magnesium per year, Dow was asked to build and operate for the Government a 72,000000-lb. plant near its original plant at Freeport. Within a few days after the Japanese made their attack at Pearl Harbor, preparation of a site was started at Velasco, Texas, for the construction of the Texas plant of the Dow Magnesium Corporation-the largest known magnesium plant utilizing sea water as its raw material. Less than six months after the first piling was driven, urgently needed magnesium was in steady production. Five months later, the plant had exceeded its rated capacity. It remained above rated production until the general magnesium curtailment was applied to Government-owned plants in September 1944. Credit for the construction and operation record of the Dow magnesium plant must be divided among the efforts of a very determined group of men, an extremely favorable location, and a simple process. It is with the two latter aspects of the plant that this article will deal. The site for the new enterprise was chosen near Velasco, Texas, on property bordering the Brazos River at a point approximately 6 miles inland from the original magnesium plant and y miles inland from the Freeport Harbor on the Gulf of Mexico. This location was far enough away from the operating units to reduce both interference from construction and the vulnerability of closely bunched manufacturing operations to the then feared air attack. Yet the distance inland was not too great for the economical construction of a barge canal from the harbor to serve both the transportation of raw

Jan 1, 1945

By Hubert Erik Sherer

Determination of the best time to replace an aging unit of equipment is a recurring problem which is common to essentially all surface and underground mining operations. Virtually all mining equipment is subject to wear and the resulting deterioration that increases with equipment life. This mechanical deterioration results in lower availability and, thus, decreasing, production. Due to decreasing production and increasing repair costs, there is an optimum age at which the replacement of a given equipment unit with a new unit will result in the lowest cost per unit of production for the equipment operation in question (Figure 1). Determination of this optimum replacement age is further complicated by factors such as: possible overhaul alternatives, fleet replacement and expansion alternatives, remaining life of the mine, and technological improvements in the potential replacement or differences in the production capacities of these replacements. Determination of the optimum time to replace an equipment unit becomes more critical each successive year due to the rising capital costs of new equipment versus maintaining old equipment. An incorrect choice of the replacement age for an equipment unit can result in excessive costs to the mining operation. If a unit is replaced too early, the capital cost of the unit is not fully utilized; conversely, replacing a unit too late results in excessive maintenance costs and low production. The economic life of a piece of equipment is the equipment age that results in the lowest total discounted cost per unit of production for that piece of equipment, not considering the cost of future replacements. The economic life of a piece of equipment is usually shorter than the physical life, the maximum age at which a machine is capable of doing useful work. The optimum replacement age for a piece of mining equipment may vary from the economic life of that equipment due to the remaining life of the mine, fleet considerations, costs associated with potential replacement machines, and capital rationing constraints. For example, the equipment life of the current machine that may result in the lowest cost per unit of production might be 10 years; however, when the timing of the future replacement costs are entered into the calculation, a different life for the current machine might result in the lowest total cost per unit produced for the remaining life of the mine.

Jan 1, 1982

By A Horne, Z Graszkiewicz, D Dettrick, R Evan, B Neal

"Most of VictoriaÆs rivers and aquifers are already fully allocated or reaching full allocation. In regions without a well-established water market, access to water entitlements to facilitate new development is limited. In areas with established water markets, mine developers face an undue cost burden in circumstances where they are only planning to consume a fraction of the water entitlements that they purchase. The challenge for water managers is to ensure protection of water resources and other water users without creating an unnecessary disincentive for those types of developments that return most of the water that they take from water sources. The opportunity for development of a mine is explicitly linked to a particular location and must be developed where a resource is located or it cannot be exploited at all. Regulatory arrangements that facilitate development may have a positive impact on economic development, particularly where water availability is a potentially limiting factor. Net volume licensing has the potential to allow increased economic outcomes through improved licensing of access to water. Net volume licensing differs from traditional water licensing in that it authorises access to water on the basis of ænet useÆ rather than æthe gross volume takenÆ. This paper asks under what conditions net volume licensing is likely to be feasible and effective. In particular, the paper examines the information and accuracy requirements to allow net volume licensing decisions to be made. This work is based around five case studies in Victoria that were used to examine the potential for net volume licensing for mines and quarries. Assessing a potential net volume licensing arrangement requires the regulating authority to have an understanding of the inputs and outputs of water to a site. In contrast, assessment of take and use licences consider only a single input. It was concluded that the conditions that lend themselves to net volume licensing include: well understood water inputs and outputs, including appropriate accuracy of information where the location of site water inputs and outputs are the same where the timing of extraction and discharge can be managed to minimise impact on the water resource.A key remaining challenge is establishing an accounting framework that allows net volume licensing under current water resource limits. CITATION:Graszkiewicz, Z, Horne, A, Neal, B, Evan, R and Dettrick, D, 2013. The practicalities of implementing net volume licensing of water use in mines and quarries - a discussion based on Victorian case studies, in Proceedings Water in Mining 2013, pp 241-250 (The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy: Melbourne)."

Nov 26, 2013

By Frederick Bird

This paper is based upon a review of studies of mostly Canadian mining companies in Chile, northern Canada, Tanzania, Guatemala, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. In spite of often well-meaning efforts most mining firms produce wealth in developing areas that largely benefit those immediately involved, sometimes neighboring communities, and often those in the governing strata. Typically mining takes place in enclaves and fosters enclave development, rather than the kind of inclusive wealth development favored by the recently UN published Inclusive Wealth Report. One way by which mining operations can foster more inclusive wealth development is to adopt much broader approaches towards the construction of the various physical and social infrastructures ? roads, water, electricity, health services, schools, security ? required for their own operations by collaborating with diverse regional, provincial, and/or national agencies and businesses to develop these infrastructures for larger populations and areas beyond the immediate sites where they are operating. Established mining firms can also foster more inclusive wealth development by establishing more formal, collaborative relationships with artisanal miners.

Aug 1, 2013

By Ralph H. Sweetser

IN the recent world-wide deflation of commodity prices the coal industry, including both anthracite and bituminous coal, had reached a level where the actual delivered market prices received by the operators were usually less than the cost of production. Many steel companies and public utilities, operating their own "captive" mines, could have bought coal during the past three years for less money than the true cost of coal produced at their own properties. Competition within the coal industry itself was cruel to the point of profitless operation, and the competition of other forms of fuel was bearing heavily on the coal producers. They were thus forced into methods of production and utilization that they had hitherto ignored; there had been almost complete absence of any appreciation (by the bituminous operators especially) of the necessity of real research work in finding better methods of preparing coal for specific uses, and in finding new and profitable uses for different kinds and grades of coal.

Jan 1, 1933

By R. Kola

Since more than 15 years the Waelz process at "Berzelius" in Duisburg has proved suitable for reprocessing the zinc and lead containing dust and .sludge which inevitably occur in making steel in EAF-plants. The produced Waelz-oxide is agglomerated in a hot-briquetting plant and charged to an Imperial Smelting Shaft Furnace to recover the valuable elements in form of metallic zinc and lead. In view of the actual importance of the dumping problems of the EAF wastes a description of the "Berzelius" treatment route is given but also the situation in Western Europe is illustrated. Dust from stainless steel production is successfully treated in the Scan Dust Plasma Process in order to recycle Chromium and Nickel, while the resulting Zinc-Dust is treated via the Waelz-ISF-Route. For treatment of low Zinc-containing dust, sludge and fines from integrated steelworks, pilot scale tests have been carried out successfully in the Circulating Fluid Bed in order to recover metalized iron and .zinc/lead fume. A 30,000 tpy Demonstration Plant is planned?.

Jan 1, 1990

By G. O. Hiers

IN 1948 in the United States, 184,300 tons of lead was fabricated as coverings for electric power and communication cables. Such covering generally is called "sheathing" for the principal lengths of the cables, while the short lead encasements of the joints are called "sleeves." For the purpose of this paper, both lead sheathing and lead sleeving can fittingly be called lead tubing. In the United States in the same year, 34,262 tons of lead was consumed in making extruded lead pipes. Such pipe is employed frequently for water or chemical solution conveyance with gage pressures up to 100 psi. Consequently, the walls are thicker in ratio to diameter than is the case with the cable sheaths. For this discussion, lead pipes can be thought of as tubes or tubing. About 19 centuries ago, the Romans produced metallic lead of about 99.9 pct purity. Evidently this was cast in flat sheets of Y8-in. thickness, for instance. Such sheet of 10-ft lengths was bent around a removable core producing a tube somewhat oval in cross-section and with a typical internal diameter of, say, 3 in. This method of production necessitated a seam or longitudinal joint evidently made by casting the seam metal adherently. The seam metal, as analyzed recently, contains about 1 ½ pct Sn. Blow pipes were said to have been employed when the joint was made. Specimens of such pipe were found both in Italy and in the British Isles. It is believed the pipes conveyed water for drinking purposes and for baths. Numerous specimens are still in existence in a good state of preservation, due to lead's usual inertness in air or water. According to Claude E. Pearson,1 there were various stages in the evolution of lead extrusion presses for making tubes: I. First press by Joseph Bramah, 1797. 2-First successful press by Thomas Burr, 1820. 3-First bridge die press, J. and C. Hanson, 1837. In 1845, Wheatston and Crooke made the first lead sheathed electric cable. Flat lead strip was wound spirally around the insulated conductor. Overlapping edges of lead were soldered. Early cables were also made by pulling insulated conductors into 50-ft lengths of lead tube. Borel in France, and Wesselau are credited with devising the first presses for extruding lead sheaths directly on cables in 1879. In the United States, Eaton, in 188o, and Roberston, in 1885, introduced new presses of improved design. Following Cunningham's original idea of making lead traps and. bends in 1873, the presses apparently were improved and made successfully soon thereafter. Between the years 1930 and 1940, two continuous extrusion presses for lead were developed abroad. One apparently was originated by Dunsheath and made by the Henley Telegraph Works Co. The other was developed by the Pirelli-General Cable Co. CURRENT PRODUCTION In addition to the several descriptive chapters on lead extrusion in Pearson's book, the Metals Handbook2 recently described pipe, sheath, and collapsible tube production. The latter is by impact extrusion.

Jan 1, 1951

By C. S. Simons

This paper presents a review of the extractive processes used in the production of nickel, with emphasis on developments since the beginning of the Second World War. Attention is given to the factors, many outside the nickel industry itself, which determined the direction of process research and strongly influenced the ultimate commitments to industrialize the resulting developments. An example of such a factor is the sudden surge in demand, far exceeding the then available nickel production capacity, that was caused by the advent of World War II; the result was the first serious consideration ever given to low- grade laterites as a viable source of primary nickel. Other factors discussed include such items as process development in the extraction of other metals - particularly copper; the availability of increasingly sophisticated materials of const- ruction; the advent of the "environmentalist" and related political developments; the massive escalation in the price of energy - particularly oil. The paper concludes with an attempt to forecast the nature of the most effective nickel process of the future, based on extrapolation from the economic and political situation that exists today.

Jan 1, 1988

By Lawrence A. Soltis

Senior engineering or executive management positions are filled by engineers who are evaluated on their performance, knowledge, skill, and maturity. Not only is technical expertise required but a knowledge of sales and marketing, finance, law, industrial relations, and public affairs is necessary. The University of Wisconsin-Extension offers an innovative post-baccalaureate degree program blending technical and professional subjects the Professional Development Degree in engineering (PDD)-designed to bring various opportunities for learn-

Jan 4, 1978

By D. S. Hines

The purchase of mechanical equipment for mines is not unlike the purchase of other materials or supplies in general principle, but on account of the major part such equipment plays in the operations, and of the fact that life and valuable property are at stake, the matter demands the most careful attention on the part of the purchaser. The problems and difficulties encountered are dealt with below in their sequence in the purchasing procedure. Requisiting Although it is quite a common practice to submit a tentative specification of requirements to recognized manufacturers of equipment- soliciting alternative propositions or recommendations for study in the selection of certain equipment-as a rule the first step in purchasing procedure is the requisition. Primarily, it is the form that carries to the purchasing department the record of equipment wanted. A full and complete description or specification, and accuracy of record, are the important points to be insisted on in a requisition. Too much attention cannot be given to this detail, as this is one of 'the most important phases of purchasing work. Incomplete information, either in specification or detail, leads to delay in handling the requisition, and, if not detected in the purchasing department, may mean receipt of material which cannot be used for the purpose intended. In addition to description of material or equipment to be ordered, the requisition should also show where or what the equipment is for, whether for operating or new work. If for capital account, the number of the authority for expenditure should be given for record and distribution purposes.

Jan 1, 1930

By Peter Fischer

A demonstration plant for QSL technology with a continuous through-put of up to 10 t/h concentrate has been in operation at the Berzelius smelter, Duisburg, Germany since early 1981. In the QSL-process, both oxidation and reduction steps are performed in a single horizontal long cylindrical reactor. In the present demo-reacior, 2.5 M diameter by 22 M long, these steps are separated by a low partition wall with an underflow opening, to prevent backmixing of slag. -Tests on a variety of concentrates, including high-lead Missouri-type material and lower grades, have shown recoveries and consumables indicating very attractive economics. Investment cost estimates further enhance the economic attractiveness. Environmental protection afforded by the QSL system is a major advantage. The process has proven its reliability and versatility and is now ready for commercialization. Continued test work, including smelting secondary lead materials, is planned.

Jan 1, 1983

By R. Melley, P. Wissner

The paper looks at the basic theory of tri-bological wear and the role played by the lubricant and its additives. It presents the argument that the “real cost of lubrication” is not the purchase price of the oil or grease, but rather the costs associated with not using the correct lubricant. A number of examples are presented, covering oils, greases and additives, in which a detailed evaluation of the application has shown that when all of the benefits of using the best lubricant/additive are evaluated, the savings achievable greatly surpass the incremental cost of the superior lubricant. One of the emerging classifications of costs in industry today are those associated with environmental protection. Two of the examples used describe the replacement of more conventional lubricants with environmentally acceptable products, compounded to compete in all aspects of serviceability, but which have the added bonus of being not only biodegradable but also of being of low toxicity.

Jan 1, 1997

By R. D. Brown

"Taxation tends to be a depressing subject. Taxes are unfair, taxes are too high and, above all, taxes are too complicated.In a recent address to the Canadian Tax Foundation, the author discussed in a rather more lighthearted way the possible causes of the complexity of the present Canadian taxation system. In order to provide an element of relief in this series of articles on taxation matters, extracts from these remarks are quoted below :"

Jan 1, 1976